rna sequencing

rna sequencing

Transcriptome Analysis Takes Predictive Breeding a Step Ahead
With the advent of genetic engineering, there has been a drastic change in the agricultural techniques. Gone are those days when man used to depend solely on nature for rainfall, soil fertility etc. Modern-man can toy with the genetic sequence and identify the part of genome which is beneficial for him.

An attempt to improve the crop varieties began almost simultaneously with the agricultural practices. Around ten thousand years ago, man started to alter the genetic make up of crops without his knowledge. The conventional plant breeding practices began when early farmers selected the plant with desirable traits and saved its seeds for the next generation. Later with the knowledge of genetics, plant breeders were able to select the crops with desirable traits like faster growth, pest and disease resistance, sweeter fruits, larger seeds etc. Two plants having two different desirable characters were cross-pollinated artificially to obtain an offspring containing a mixture of these characters (hybrid variety). As a net result of these techniques new varieties of crops have developed which are significantly different from their wild relatives. Conventional breeding techniques largely depend on selection of superior varieties of crops and incorporation of desirable traits into future generations.

Genetic engineering has brought quantum change from conventional breeding practices and has introduced combination of genes which do not exist naturally. Sequencing of genomes of various plants has now become feasible with the faster progression in genetic engineering. Predictive breeding is an advanced technique which comes up with a promise of identifying the beneficial genes out of the entire genome. Genetic markers like SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphism) or minisatellites are used to construct linkage maps. The linkage maps help to identify the traits which are inherited together. The knowledge of genome sequence along with the linkage maps helps to associate the beneficial traits of the plant with specific parts of genome sequence.

Complicated genomes of polyploid crops pose a serious problem to predictive breeding. A cell of a polyploidy organism has more than two sets of homologous chromosomes and each set contains all the genes responsible for the biological traits of that organism. Professor Ian Bancroft took this as a challenge and identified the sequence of rapeseed (Brassica napus). This crop has been found to originate from two related species that is Brassica rapa and Brassica oleracea. Rapeseed (Brassica napus) was declared as a third leading source of vegetable oil in the world in the year 2000. Canola is the name given to Canadian oil that is extracted from certain varieties of Rapeseed. This oil is a rich source of essential fatty acids (omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in the ratio of 2:1). Apart from these it is also an important source of Biodiesel which can power motor vehicles. This oil is generally combined with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% of biodiesel. This does not damage the engine. Isn't it an eco-friendly plant?

Sequencing the DNA of this plant directly was difficult because of its complicated genome. Hence they adopted a different strategy. Transcriptomes were sequenced from young juvenile leaves. Transcriptome is a set of all RNA molecules, including mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, and other non-coding RNA. It represents a small percentage of the genome. The sequence of a transcriptome mirrors the sequence of the DNA from which it was transcribed. This study gives an idea about all the genes which get expressed into proteins in that tissue. Sequence of transcriptome will act like a raw material for scientists struggling to locate the human friendly genes within the entire genome of the polyploid plants. Based on this improved varieties of seeds can be produced.

A large number of crops like potato, wheat, oat, sugarcane, cotton etc are polyploid and few crops amongst them are staple crops in certain parts of the world. Transcriptome sequencing will help the scientists to identify the desirable genes even in the absence of complete genome sequence. This new technique will make predictive breeding of crops with complicated genomes feasible.

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single molecule dna sequencing

single molecule dna sequencing

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a process for amplifying very tiny amounts of DNA such that they can be visualized and assessed or used in further scientific processes. PCR is widely used in almost all branches of biology including molecular biology, microbiology, genetics, environmental science, food science, biotechnology, forensic science, and clinical diagnostics. The PCR technique involves using an enzyme called DNA polymerase to amplify (duplicate many times) a piece of DNA. The original molecule of DNA is duplicated by the DNA polymerase enzyme, thus doubling the number of DNA molecules.

Then each of these molecules is duplicated in a second cycle of replication, resulting in four molecules. Again, each of these molecules is duplicated by the enzyme in a third cycle of replication. The process is referred to as a chain reaction - hence the name "polymerase chain reaction". The original single molecule piece of DNA is amplified over many cycles, generating millions of copies of the original DNA molecule. Often the PCR experiment is performed simply to verify the presence or absence of a particular type of DNA but sometimes PCR is used to generate sufficient DNA to be used in a subsequent experiment, for example cloning or DNA sequencing. The original PCR process has been extensively modified to perform a wide array of genetic manipulations, diagnostic tests, and for many other uses. (Reference: Real-Time PCR: Current Technology and Applications ISBN: 978-1-904455-39-4)

Modern variations of PCR include Real-time PCR. This technology allows the newly generated DNA molecules to be analysed immediately they are produced. This ability to monitor the PCR process in real time, while the reaction is still occuring, is of enormous benefit to scientists as it reduces the amount of time required to generate a result (especially important in clinical diagnostics) and also enables the quantitation of the DNA. Real-time PCR can not only answer the question "what DNA is present?" but also "how much DNA is present?".

The polymerase chain reaction is used by a huge number of scientists in a vast range of scientific disciplines. In microbiology and molecular biology laboratories, for example, PCR is used in DNA cloning experiments, genetic manipulation, DNA sequencing, genetic modification, and many other procedures. In clinical diagnostic laboratories PCR is used for the diagnosis of microbial infections, the detection of hereditary diseases and in epidemiological studies. In medicine PCR has led to significant improvements in the diagnosis of infectious disease. PCR is also used for genetic fingerprinting in forensic and paternity testing laboratories. (Reference: Real-Time PCR in Microbiology: From Diagnosis to Characterization ISBN: 978-1-904455-18-9)

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human genome project

human genome project 

Human Genome Project: -. 1991 Michael Coe wrote Breaking Maya Code, which he said knowing how this language was' both phonetic and graphic it was important that the Human Genome Project and the settlements in the area, I personally think that it is very important to see that the Mayas were the language to understand the many possibilities, many tribes and people.

human genome project videos

It is very important for our application to the Brotherhood. It is not as important as any other important step forward in the future of humanity is the space go colonization of our salvation, and the remnants of humanity, even if it the Mayan prophecy that 2012 offers a new interpretation of human civilization on earth. I personally hope that the prophecy refers to the new location, and people. you need a ethical approach, the Human Genome Project. We should not be forced to a small group of people, some of the new species, although I think it would be best for them and together for all of us. Those who want to pass the immortality gene therapy and the strengthening of the telomeres, which is not in a position to gay sapiens immortalis when all people have access. How can we prevent it? What is human cloning? Then there's Danny Hillis and who want to get rid of their brains, a stunning work to be completed. This is not a textbook of science fiction, but it must take place at the time, or at least his father's generation.

human genome project definition

"The genetic blueprint for a person less than 21 / 2 inch length of 1.8 m of DNA that fills the interior of each cell in the body according to new results. Most of the other human genome is full of strange life of individuals have found that the holders of the genome as tiny fragments of foreign DNA {Gardner says some is Anunnaki or alien DNA, and the white side is more programming.} Living parasites human DNA and even smaller pieces of sponge and parasite. Although already on the creature in the human genome, only now to see how many people actually know how the genes are transmitted to humans, and how these communities in the development of complex cells from human ancestors millions of years ..

human genome project pbs

"We called the human genome, the book of life, but in fact three books," said Francis Collins, director of the National Human Genome Research Institute in Bethesda, Maryland, and Director of the Human Genome Project. "This is a history book. This workshop manuals and parts list. Y "is a textbook of medicine, a deeper more detailed than ever .'..

The researchers also found that sperm mutations twice as many eggs, which means that people suggested the major source of errors in the genetic and evolutionary innovations.

nova human genome project

By comparing the human genome with the genomes of simple organisms like flies and worms, scientists have also unprecedented detail view, helped a handful of genetic innovations, the first vertebrates start of all the hundreds of millions of years before the organic.

If the evolutionary creativity that led to the human genome, researchers, he says, surprisingly few changes in a person. Worldwide, 99.9 percent genetically identical. "(10)

Do you think there is much to consider, learn how to become the white man, or how the hominids were not as modern as us? It seems that a lot of information in our genes. It could be access to a computer that leads the soul? I think swimming is the energy situation and the Akasha and through life. NASA scientists that life is everywhere, and I can say that the love is there. If you just do not get to feel and the feeling of "warmth that permeates every void and fills every rock world. Shamans in their second-line drugs and to maintain the direction, plants and stones. Jung's archetypes of the genes lead to our past. Perhaps Jesus and his father to live "close, we give our genes. Mystics claim that genes, the involvement of the soul and spirit. Our network archetypes, or "one-dimensional harmonic force ', 11, M-membranes in each atom, the coordination of our solar system body and the dross physical bodies. It is ridiculous to think that we all know the consciousness and the soul, and most people live in ignorance or deny its presence. "

Trips made when we become aware of the soul of the body of the sun and traveling are incorporated impressive. It is surprising that the grimace on the face of a professor who does not agree with these ideas. Poets and troubadours of the past, we were able to bring our ideas to hell when he starts dancing in harmony with nature. The natural forces of cohesion and the meridians or rust, and vectors that enable the operation of all is wonderful. We have tried to put us in nature and will never want to (hopefully) to be selfish. These forces do not say hello to us we will dive the reef. Victor Hugo wrote a wonderful appreciation of Shakespeare, which I quote. In comparing the perceptions of Shakespeare, at the foot of the cliff, overlooking the "vision of waves wonderful!" Every time we read his works again, that the depth of experience and back to the cliff and a little more that brings us one step closer to reality, all the waves in the cosmic ocean that awaits us in connection Beauty at the end of our journey has .

sequencing of dna

sequencing of dna 

New DNA Diagnostic Test For Lyme Disease May Have Merit
Milford Hospital in Massachusetts has been working for over a year on a new type of diagnostic test for Lyme disease using sequencing of dna  rather than DNA nesting.

Huh?

We have all heard of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method of Lyme testing which is considered a "DNA nesting" test method which detects a genomic DNA of the Lyme disease-causing spirochete in the blood.

dna sequencing technology

There are many problems with the PCR test but the largest being (in my opinion) that by the time a person is diagnosed by the ELIZA antibody test and then the western blot, a PCR will likely be negative due to the time it takes for the spirochetes to disseminate into the victim's body.

If however, this new sequencing of dna  test could replace the ELIZA test and be administered immediately, we would have a much better chance of diagnosing Lyme early, treating it early and reducing the number of missed cases that end up as debilitating chronic cases.

Excitement is growing around this new test for several reasons.

First, in the world of genetic testing, sequencing of dna  is accepted as the gold standard for molecular identification wheras the ELIZA test is considered to miss as many as 50 - 75% of those who are infected.

Secondly, at a time where battle lines have been clearly drawn in the medical sands of research and practice, the staff and research team under Dr Lee, a pathologist at Milford Hospital (Milford, CT), Dr. Jay Walshon, Chairman of Emergency Medicine at Milford Hospital, and Dr. Jessie Williams, of the Milford Hospital Walk-in Urgent Care Center are preparing another report to summarize their research experience.

Perhaps at another time this would not be remarkable, but to see that these papers are being published can give us all hope that eventually research will over-run prejudice and give the doctors who are caught in the crossfire, wanting to treat their patients who are suffering so severely with chronic Lyme - but feel their hands are tied by the harsh and restrictive language of the IDSA.

dna sequencing diagram

I believe most of our doctors do care and truly want to help but feel they are backed up against the wall given the hostility of the existing argument.

So we will keep a watch out for the next press release from Milford Hospital.

Meanwhile, if you or someone you know believes they may have contracted Lyme disease recently, this new test is being used right now in Milford.

The physicians at the Milford Hospital Emergency Center and Walk-in Urgent Care Center, who see about 40,000 patients a year, usually order the traditional antibody testing and the new DNA test for patients presenting with Lyme disease-like symptoms. Evidently, most insurance companies except Aetna will pay for the test.

mtdna sequencing

mtdna sequencing

The completion of human mtDNA sequencing project was the first step in allowing scientists to unravel the secrets contained in our DNA sequencing. Further over the past few years DNA testing has become affordable and easy to do. This has spawned the practice of performing DNA testing for Genealogical purposes which is called Genetic Genealogy.

One of the first genetic genealogy studies was conducted in the late 1980s by scientists with the Department of Biochemistry at the University of California, Berkeley. These scientists Rebecca L. Cann, Mark Stoneking and Allan C. Wilson studied a newly discovered kind of DNA. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA sequencing) is contained not in the nucleus of our cell, but in the mitochondria organelles of our cells. These scientists chose to study Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) because of its three unique properties which they explain as:

DNA sequencing

First, mtDNA sequencing gives a magnified view of the diversity present in the human gene pool, because mutations accumulate in this DNA several times faster than in the nucleus. Second, because mtDNA sequencing is inherited maternally and does not recombine, it is a tool for relating individuals to one another. Third, there are about 1016 mtDNA molecules within a typical human and they are usually identical to one another (Cann 31).

They extracted and compared mtDNA from "147 people, drawn from five geographic populations" (Cann 31). The researchers discovered that "All these mitochondrial DNAs stem from one woman who is postulated to have lived about 200,000 years ago, probably in Africa" (Cann 31). Their findings also agree with the archaeology record as Cann explains "Studies of mtDNA suggest a view of how, where and when modern humans arose that fits with one interpretation of evidence from ancient human bones and tools" (36).

mtDNA

Swedish researchers Max Ingman, Henrik Kaessmann, Svante Paabo and Ulf Gyllensten critical of these findings conducted their own study in 2000. They claimed that "almost all studies of human evolution based on mtDNA sequencing have been confined to the control region, which constitutes less than 7% of the mitochondrial genome" (Ingman 708). Further they argued that the prior methods of analysis where "providing data that are ill suited to estimations of mutation rate and therefore the timing of evolutionary events" (Ingman 708). So they decided to study the complete mtDNA sequence from 53 people of various races.

Surprisingly their attempt to discredit the previous research failed as they also came to roughly the same conclusions. They conceded to the likely hood of a common ancestor shared by all the subjects despite being "geographically unrelated" (Ingman 712). They estimated "The age of the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) for mtDNA, on the basis of the maximum distance between two humans...to be 171,500" (Ingman 712) instead of the earlier estimate of 200,000 years ago. But they refused to align their findings with archeologists by stating "Whether the ancestors of these six extant lineages originally came from a specific geographic region is not possible to determine" (Ingman 712). Lastly they agreed on the potential of genetic genealogy by summarizing:

    Our results indicate that the field of mitochondrial population genomics will provide a rich source of genetic information for evolutionary studies. Nevertheless, mtDNA is only one locus and only reflects the genetic history of females. For a balanced view, a combination of genetic systems is required. With the human genome project reaching fruition, the ease by which such data may be generated will increase, providing us with an evermore detailed understanding of our genetic history (Ingman 712).

Their call for a more balanced view was shortly answered because in 2000 a team of researchers from the Department of Genetics at Stanford University lead by Peter A. Underhill published their results of studying Y-chromosome DNA. Only males have the Y-chromosome which has unique properties as explained by Underhill:

    Binary polymorphisms associated with the non-recombining region of the human Y chromosome (NRY) preserve the paternal genetic legacy of our species that has persisted to the present, permitting inference of human evolution, population affinity and demographic history (358).

Their report was based upon "the analysis of 1062 globally representative individuals" (Underhill 358). They concluded that the subjects "represent the descendants of the most ancestral patrilineages of anatomically modern humans that left Africa between 35,000 and 89,000 years ago" (Underhill 358).

So far genetic genealogy research has focused on these two kinds of DNA. As mentioned previously mtDNA is passed along the maternal line and Y-Chromosome DNA is passed along the paternal line. These two kinds of DNA effectively encompass all of our ancestors. Yet they provide no information about our ancestors inside the encompassed area. For example our maternal grandfather (mother's father) couldn't contribute any mtDNA or Y-Chromosome DNA to our mother. Yet he did contribute a third type of DNA called autosomal DNA. This type of DNA has yet to be studied for Genetic Genealogy purposes because of its inherent difficulties.

The main reason autosomal DNA is just now being studied is because scientists aren't sure how to determine which autosomal DNA came from mom and which came from dad without testing one or both of our parents. This situation is illustrated by the mathematical equation X = Xm/2 + Xd/2 where our autosomal DNA (X) is half of our mom's (Xm/2) and half of our dad's (Xd/2). By testing ourselves we identify our autosomal DNA but can't determine which part came from mom or dad. Additionally testing one of our parents is necessary to determine exactly which parent contributed which part of our autosomal DNA. This type of testing is currently used for Paternity and near relationship testing. But quickly becomes impractical after a few generations because of the difficulty of obtaining DNA samples from probably deceased ancestors.

Conclusion

analyzing mtDNA

Genetic Genealogy is the science of analyzing mtDNA sequencing for genealogical purposes. Studies have shown that we all stem from a common female and male ancestor. Because this emerging science is so new, benefits of this research are still being identified. Currently I believe Genetic Genealogy offers three categories of benefits.

First is entertainment value. Finding out you're related to famous people like George Washington, Julius Caesar or Genghis Khan is just plain fun. Imagine the bragging rights and small-talk fodder this provides at social gatherings.

Second is scientific value. Current studies have corroborated other scientific findings such as the human archaeological record. Medical sciences will benefit from correlating mtDNA sequencing studies with family genealogies to isolate hereditary diseases.

Third is relatedness value. Finding out you're related to a wealthy individual like Bill Gates may entail a financial windfall. Most importantly of all is the ability to reunite families. Millions of displaced war torn families and adopted children can now turn to Genetic Genealogy to find their relatives.

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the human genome project

the human genome project

My nephew has a doctorate in "Studying all that Biological Stuff."
After his mother's funeral at dinner I asked him how the human genome project was going and was he working on it.
He is very quiet and uses short sentences if possible. He said, "We finished that."
I changed the subject to Latent Hopes of Tibetan Monks, where I have more expertise. You don't want to look too stupid to your smart nephew.

 the human genome project videos

Anyway, it still nagged me that I knew so little about the Human Genome Project. After almost two years of this nagging I decided to look up Human Genome on Google, my favorite place to look up the strange and obvious.
Well, that was a downright lie. That's not why I looked it up. The real reason was I learned that the Department of Energy was involved. (That was before I remembered that DOE has these gigantic computers that can handle complex projects like the HGP.) I decided there was another governmental conspiracy we had not learned about. It smelled like Vice President Dick Cheney's Cabal again. They were going to turn some of us humans into pillars of oil.
At my friend's house, Mr. Google.com, I looked at the top entry which often is as far as I want to dive into 10 zillion submissions. It seems that everybody in the universe knows more about the human genome than I do and each one has written at least one article or web page for the Internet.

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dna sequencing facility

dna sequencing facility

dna sequencing facility
In recent decades, the impressive development of genetic engineering. The proposal to sequence the entire human genome was created 16 years ago to interpret "arms race" between public and private companies with no natural sciences. In a constant battle for the first version of the human genome, a multinational consortium, and public companies, biotechnology, which is owned by billionaire Craig Venter billion to publish new DNA sequencing technology quickly and accurately develop. It has brought enormous benefits for biological and medical research and improve treatments and diagnostic tools.
Genetic testing is one of the fields that greatly benefited from these outcomes. As we know from famous TV series, today is possible to finger out a criminal by analyzing a single hair or a tiny drop of saliva. A more widespread application of this technology is that of paternity testing. A doubtful father can easily order a DNA testing kit, take a sample of himself and his child and send it out to a DNA testing facility. In a matter of days, he will receive a report confirming of ruling out his biological fatherhood on that child.

dna analysis facility

Although establishing paternity is the most frequent reason for having a DNA test done, there are many other applications. For example, it is also possible to determine other familiar relations such as brother/sisterhood, maternity, paternity when the alleged father is not available and so on. People can also have a detailed analysis about their ethnic and genealogical background. These kinds of tests are often made out of curiosity, but sometimes they can be very helpful. It is frequent that people are excluded from certain benefits that are intended for a specific ethnic group, such as Native Americans because they cannot demonstrate their ancestry. DNA testing is an effective and conclusive way to prove a person's ethnic ancestry.

genome sequencing service

So far, everything looks fine. You need to have a DNA test done, so you do some research online. What you will find is an overwhelming spectrum of DNA labs offering paternity tests, and of course, each of them claims that they are "the best lab". What to do? Pick the first you come across? Pick the cheapest? You don't need to be an expert to decide, but knowing the difference among all those labs will allow you to make a wiser decision. Why is this important? The kinds of questions you seek to answer through a DNA test are not trivial. A man who is not sure if he is the true father of his children cannot accept a "maybe" as an answer, can he? Well, that is what he'll get if he chooses a cheap DNA test from an inexperienced lab.
All DNA tests are essentially similar in their bare basics: they are all based on the same biological principles and use the same kind of analytical methods. There are, however, some differences you should take into account.

One important difference is the number of genetic markers they look at. Genetic markers are simply specific regions in the human genome that tend to be different among people. Imagine there is a region for which there are 5 different "types" among humans. You are most likely to have the same type as your father at the same region. However, since there are only 5 different types in the population, your are also sharing the type with many other people that are not related to you, so that looking at this single region will not tell for sure who your father is. If we look at another region, the chances for sharing both of them with unrelated people are lower, but it is still possible.

dna analysis facility

As the number of markers increase, the probability of a random match (sharing the same markers with an unrelated person) is lower. The best paternity tests use as much as 16 different markers. Having a match for all 16 markers by chance is virtually impossible, so a perfect match conclusively tells that the two persons are father and child. Why not using even more markers? Because there is no need to (with 16 markers, the probability of a false result is nil), and adding more markers to the analysis would only make the test more expensive. Why not less than 16? Many labs use between 4 and 8 markers to make the test cheaper. By choosing one of these you may save a few dollars, but your doubts will not be completely wiped out. Do you find this acceptable? Surely not.
The second most important source of false results of DNA testing is, paradoxically, one of its strengths. DNA tests are based on a technique called PCR (for Polymerase Chain Reaction). PCR was a revolutionary invention that warranted its creator a Nobel Prize. One of the most important features of PCR is its sensitivity: it is possible to analyzed minute amounts of DNA (in theory it can be done with a single cell). On one side, one can analyzed DNA from a single hair, a tiny spot of blood or even from the saliva obtained from a used cigarette, but the high sensitivity has a downside: it is very easy that such small samples become contaminated with DNA from other individuals, such as the police detective that gathered blood spots at the crime scene, the lab technician who processed the sampled and so on. Truly professional DNA labs follow strict guidelines and protocols to avoid contamination and have University-trained personnel. In this regard, if you send your DNA sample to an inexperienced or ill-equipped DNA lab, you risk a false result since somebody else's DNA may be analyzed instead of yours due to improper manipulation or use of cheap or defective lab materials.

dna sequencing

If you are thinking of having a DNA testing done, being for establishing paternity, genealogical inquiry, determination of Native American status or other reasons choose carefully. Avoid labs offering very low prices. Check thoroughly to have an idea about the price ranges out there. Only labs offering a multi-marker (ideally 16 for the standard paternity test) tests should be trusted. Avoid labs that, judging from their websites appear to be small or amateur. Consider that some companies are offering "ready-to-use" DNA testing labs that can be used by anyone to offer cheap DNA testing. DNA testing should only be performed by qualified personnel and equipment.

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human genome project

human genome project
Interested in the Human Genome Project? Read our guide to facts and information on the work of the multi-million dollar ..

There are about 35,000 human genes for the project. The conversion of these genes can be the source of the money to be for biological studies. These efforts, the project will also study the genetic material of all organisms in the human body.

Billion-dollar research project was satisfactory after thirteen long years. A first draft of the human genome as a whole went public in 2000. Next year, presented to the true nature and complexity of the digital code of DNA, the researchers associated with them.

The results clearly show, as the human DNA molecule consists of 35 000 genes, some three billion chemical criteria, which are arranged in order. Extensive studies carried out so much information that he said that the quantities of books in the E. coli bacteria are single cell can be stored. Analyze the results are really stressed the scientific miracles in the structure of DNA, and forced the researchers to a better understanding of the complexity. DNA found in its most basic level, James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.

Human Genome Project has an enormous impact on the future. Scientists realized that, the possibilities of genetic manipulation, and many of them used to us in a number of ways. But also a powerful discovery opens up many possibilities for abuse of science. In fact, you also have a large influence on the beliefs and the psychology of the individual.

In the world of our genetic structure of DNA determines who we are. However, many think that the soul of the body. Results of the Human Genome Project has a sense of reason, atheists and agnostics. But we must remember that some of the key researchers in these experiments were really Christians.

No doubt, the Human Genome Project a terrible job. But history shows that scientific knowledge is not spiritual guidance often leads to the destruction of mankind. However, the data stored in huge databases. Analytical tools are also better at the same time. The project also includes technology transfer to the private sector. It is also an objective of the task of the Human Genome Project, legal issues, social and ethical issues related to the type of project to take under consideration .

genome sequencer

genome sequencer
I  DNA'm sure you have the definition of  hear '', and we all know what a cell (single cell or multiple cells in amoeba or human), but what is a genome, a chromosome of a gene and the they do?

 And then there are the double helix. Many of us have seen a picture of the double helix, but how many of us understand what it is or why is it important?

 Most of us read our information on cells and DNA from the crime TV shows that many crimes solved through DNA comparison, and we heardof people who have been convicted of terrible crimes cleared by DNA testing.

 Now much of this knowledge comes from sequencing the human genome, a long and complicated process of breaking the genome into small pieces, the identification of the base pairs and put back together in the right order.

 Thanks to the efforts of the scientists who participated in the  "Human Genome Project  'genes for many genetic diseases identified what our realPossibility of effective treatments or cures.

 OK, you and I  't understand anything about science in the context of genetics. I searched the Web for answers and now I understand a bit more '. I understand how important this work, especially the child with cystic fibrosis or the person who is in prison, wrongly convicted of a terrible crime.

 If you are interested in this topic, there are a lot of information on the web. WhileUsers, however, are definitely in business to sell you information about your family tree going after your DNA. Remember that this field  still in its infancy, so limit your expectations, if you decide to try it.

dna sequencer

dna sequencerScientists have applied letters to various parts of DNA, and the sequence of the code, or letters, is a massive scientific breakthrough. Essentially, a Sequence is a written map of a person, animal, or plant. DNA Sequencing allows scientists to see traits on paper, not just in action. This allows scientists to tell the difference between the DNA of a dog, for example, and a human. The sequence of the code, or letters, in a strand of DNA, offers a number of vital pieces of scientific information.

Through DNA Sequencing, specific traits have been isolated. For example, scientists were able to identify genes that may contribute to a number of ailments, including Alzheimer's and Breast Cancer. With the identification of such genes comes the possibility of altering them, which is controversial. However, knowing that there are genes that make it more likely for a person to suffer from such an ailment, knowing what those genes look like and where they are, will certainly make many doctors have slightly easier jobs. This information will possibly make diagnosing less challenging, if not treatment. As it becomes more advanced, the potential applications will surely grow.

In recent years, complete DNA Sequencing for humans was completed. It was called the Human Genome Project. The scientists working on the project mapped out the entire sequence of human DNA. It was this project that allowed genes for certain diseases to be identified, which may some day lead to cures. After the initial large-scale DNA Sequencing project, many scientists are working with DNA Sequences on a smaller-scale. The field is a growing one, with a large number of potential benefits. There are a number of companies who offer to partially sequence DNA to offer health advice. Research has shown that there are certain genes which put people at a higher risk for ailments, and such health advice is said to lower risk. As the field grows, there will likely be more possibilities.

There are a number of diseases, including cancers, which have genes that have been identified through DNA Sequencing. It has also been found that there are certain risk factors that make a disease more likely to occur if a person has a certain gene. An example of this is Colon Cancer. Through DNA Sequencing, it has been found that certain people, with a specific gene, are more likely to suffer from Colon Cancer if they eat a large amount of red meat. However, other people, without this gene, are not as likely to suffer from Colon Cancer, even with above average amounts of red meat.

Many people are becoming very interested in DNA Sequencing. Realizing the ramifications of information like that explained above-that there are certain genes which put only some people at a higher risk-has sparked interest. Many people are seeking out personal DNA Sequencing to aid them in their quest for better health.

Melanie Smith

For more information please visit

Article Source: dna sequencer

gene sequences

gene sequences

Genome survey sequences are often used for the mapping of genome sequencing. Through the genetic use of pcr, 454, abi, and the absence of mRNA scientists are using genome survey as a mapping tool for genome sequencing. Through advanced software and the use of array in research, scientists are service for helping this exciting new technology in this upcoming field. By using genes and gene mapping scientists can pave the road for biology and the people who are influenced and need it to survive.
Genome survey sequencing is one of the most exciting new parts of biotechnology. It allows scientists to better map genome sequencing. The benefits are extremely outstanding. By not having to rely on mRNA, genome survey sequencing is the new way to map out genome sequencing. There are so many benefits that can come from genome sequencing. So many diseases can be weeded out as a result. Plants are especially important. By weeding out diseases in plants massive amounts of food can be produced through DNA replication of food DNA strands.
So much relies on the speedy and timely fashion of this research is extremely important in understanding how to replicate food. By doing this research scientists will be able to use the technology of arrays to accurately pinpoint how to do this replication in the most efficient way possible. Efficiency is the best strategy to use when the entire world is starving. By using this new technology so many can be benefited from this research. People's lives can be saved and much of the world can benefit from enough food to feed everyone, especially those who need it.
However there are many drawbacks to bioengineering. For example, bioengineering introduces many different chemicals that many people believe may be harmful to the human body. Genome survey sequencing plays a role in this as well, being a part of bioengineering and genome sequencing it is also viewed as something that may be potentially harmful to humans. By researching and trusting in science it is possible that as a world we can make the proper decisions and chose to understand this new and versatile process rather than instantly jump in an criticize it blindly. There are drawbacks to everything in the world, and genome survey sequencing and genome sequencing is something that will simply be tossed aside and not monitored and studied.
For many years scientists have hoped for a more rigid and helpful way to map out DNA and understand it better. They may just have this answer with the advent and usefulness of DNA genome survey sequencing and its many benefits and uses.

Article Source: gene sequences

dna structure

dna structure

DNA can be defined as a special nucleic acid that contains instructions for the development of different features and traits in the family members of that living organism. Its main function is to store information about the organism. The carrier of the genetic information from one person or living organism to the next in the hereditary is called genes. In every living body, there are some cells where the DNA exists and DNA forms a helical shape and forms chromosomes. The multiplication of these cells can also be called cell division or DNA replication. There are many structures of DNA and one of them is the Quadruplex form. In it, there are linear shaped chromosomes. The end points of these chromosomes are a very important region called telomeres. This special telomere DNA structure basically protects the end of the chromosomes.

It is very important to know more about telomeres and then it will be easy to understand the telomere DNA structure. Firstly, telomeres are always present at the end parts of the chromosomes. It can be defined as a region of recurring DNA which is present in the chromosomes at the end. Its main function is to guard or look after the end points of the chromosomes from weakening or from damaging. It stops that end region from deprivation or ruining of the genes; it does this by shorting the ends of each chromosome which is automatic during the process of replication. During the process of cell division, there are enzymes that help in duplication of the DNA. It has been found that if cells divide without the telomeres, the ends of chromosomes would degrade and at the end lose the instructions of information that it contains. It can be said that it stays at the end to block the chromosomes and divide at cell division and gets reloaded by special telomeres enzymes. This way there is a lot to know about the telomere DNA structure.

There are various changes that occur in the telomere DNA structure. There are two types of structures; lengthened and shortened. The shortening of telomeres in human beings can provoke duplication, which may stop cell division and may affect the health of the person. Though it protects in multiplying the cancer cells to grow, it may harm the immune system in humans and may increase the chances of having cancer. This shortening may occur because of aging and bad health. Also the shortening may reduce the cell division or duplicity and move to senescence which may suppress the cancer cells. The shortening could be cured by giving long telomeres. The other telomere DNA structure is the long telomeres which raises the energy consumption; which results in less energy after every few hours; it does not look that bad but is very difficult to handle. Similarly, if in some condition long telomeres are more, then they can be cured by shorter telomeres. But inheriting it from someone will not protect it from cancer.

DNA is one of the smallest parts of our body and forms the chromosomes which have a very important connection with child birth and genes. These chromosomes have telomeres at the ends of each strand of chromosomes. They are very important and useful. They protect and store all the information of the genes and take care of the duplicity. The telomere DNA structure may vary but every change in the structure leads to illnesses in humans. Some scientists say that some changes may cure and slow the aging but hasn't yet been proved in humans. It is better to know everything about telomeres before coming to conclusions.

Article Source: dna structure

dna mapping

dna mapping

The discovery of the existence of DNA has not been enough for scientists since there is more part of the puzzle to be revealed. For instance, to fully understand human existence, genetics and heredity, every gene on the human chromosome has to be determined including their function and the function for their placement. This process is called DNA Mapping, a very complex and intricate means to dig deep everything about the human Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid.

DNA Mapping has a variety of purposes. The human life is reliant on DNA, on every pairing of bases, arrangement of genes and chromosomes. Any mismatch, missing piece or extra piece can be fatal to a person. Errors can even cause the death of an unborn child. If not, the baby can die shortly after birth or become disfigured or predisposed to certain diseases all the day of his or her life. The human DNA is still so mysterious, yet slowly, scientists are able to unravel minute details. A complete information can save a lot of lives, prevent reproduction and development problems as well as find cures for untreatable conditions. The success of this procedure can also prove evolution. It can pinpoint certain mutations which brought improvements to the form, figure and functioning of the human body from its believed ape ancestor. It can also enable scientists to explain the differences in human race- why there are Asians, Caucasians and Negroids if there is only one breed of human ancestry. It can even link humans to other animals and to the human ecosystem where he lives.

Indeed, DNA mapping can complete the human puzzle. The difficulty in figuring out every gene and chromosome along with their respective functions just prove how progressive and unique humans are. It is like figuring out every wiring on the boards of the computers so it can work and deliver its purpose. Any slight deviation can bring about a defect or give another function. For instance, a scientist jokingly says that mismatches can make a gorilla, earthworm or elephant instead. As such, the quest for the human existence will only be completed with the unraveling of the DNA blunders.

By:Lindsey_Jenkins
Article Source: dna mapping

automated dna sequencing

automated dna sequencing

Why is DNA Analysis important to me?

Knowing your family's genetic history may someday save your life or that of someone you love. Based on state-of-the-art genetic technology, a unique DNA Profile can be generated for you to keep for years to come. DNA Storage for up to 25 years is available for future genetic testing, upon your request. What better gift can a loved one leave behind?

What role does DNA have in Funeral Service?

The purpose of this article is to familiarize Funeral Directors about DNA activities, and related areas. Realizing that this technology is what we as caregivers are used to discussing, is a field that is of concern to many of our clients and their families. The vast spectrum of DNA can give us insight on the value it can play in our community. In a series of articles, we would like to give you a basic knowledge about the different but related studies involving DNA.

It takes three generations to determine predisposition to most of the genetic inherited diseases / disorders. It is now known that families should store DNA for future use. Banking specimens containing DNA from the same Family provides invaluable information for the health of current and future offspring. We as Funeral Directors have an opportunity to make a Family aware that such a service is available. After burial, retrieving DNA can be expensive. Obtaining DNA after cremation is much more difficult. The success rate of recovering DNA within the first year of cremation is approximately 50%. Offering storage and or profiling DNA of the deceased, gives Funeral Directors a Unique opportunity to offer a Service that can have a lasting impact on those we serve. If you as a Funeral Director do not see the need for this service, it does not mean that families do not need this service. Statistics tell us that families place a tremendous amount of trust in their Funeral Director. This is because we care so deeply in what we do. Informing a Family of their options, while guiding them through the most difficult times in their life is a responsibility that a Funeral Director accepts and excels in.

It is our hope that Funeral Homes throughout the United States will contact us and give us their input as to the value of DNA in a Funeral service.

Why we firmly believe in what we do.

At the National Funeral Directors Association meeting in October 2001, we outlined all the reasons for the value of DNA storage such as paternity/inheritance, genealogy, missing persons, forensic issues; identification of hereditary disorders, congenital birth defects; predisposition to allergies, mental, metabolic, cardiovascular, bleeding/clotting disorders, genetic cancers, microbial diseases. The potential does not end with the above. Rapidly evolving technologies in cloning pets, stem cell/gene therapy are currently being done, all to improve the quality of life.

Recently we had four interesting success stories...

1. A 62-year-old female dies of complications resulting from Breast Cancer. The deceased women leave 2 daughters and 1 granddaughter. During a "Pre-Need Consultation", the woman elected to have her DNA profiled and the sample banked.

2 years later; one of the daughters is diagnosed with the same Breast Cancer as the Mother. The second daughter has her DNA profiled and compared to the mothers. It is determined that the second daughter does not have the same genetic structure as the mother that would pre-dispose her to the cancer. However, the Granddaughters DNA is profiled and it is determined that she possesses the same genetic disorder as the Grandmother. Pharmacogenomics and gene therapy are begun to prevent the cancer in the granddaughter before it develops.

2. The mother of a Divorced son was interested in identifying the granddaughter's father. Was he her husband were her son? We identified her son is the alleged father. This was a "Paternity" issue.

3. The three sons of the deceased lady came to request identification of their mothers remains between two occupants of a gravesite that had collapsed. She passed away seven years ago, so the atypical specimen sources were bone marrow and vertebrae. Procedures were laborious, but we identified their mother. Her remains can now be transferred to another site. This is "Profiling".

4. A friend's baby presented with what appeared to be a Bleeding tendency at 3 months of age. The baby was admitted to Children's Hospital, Cincinnati, extensively treated but expired at age 8 months. An autopsy revealed universal capillary involvement (small blood vessels) by a clotting abnormality resulting in damaging complications in vital organs such as heart, liver and spleen. This leaves a Protein called von Willebrand factor and is coded by a Gene called ADAMSTS 13. The parents are currently being tested for "Mutations" in order to know who transmitted to the gene. The baby's DNA is currently in storage it doesn't matter who stores DNA in life and in death provided it is properly collected and stored because although it's stable, it can be contaminated and it can disappear during purification; this complicates genetic testing. Before the advent of Pharmacogenomics, astute clinicians treating HIV patients relied on drug resistance testing to predict outcomes; complementary to resistance testing his current genotyping, which includes identifying mutations, associated with resistance. In the not-too-distant future, the combination of drug resistance testing and pharmacokinetic testing will provide a better idea of in-vivo relevance of resistance data. Stored DNA lasts forever; it will provide an endless source for multiple testing that will hopefully improve clinical outcomes.

Pharmacogenomics

The terms "Pharmacogenomics" and "Pharmacokinetics" are sometimes used interchangeably to describe the analysis of genes involved in drug response.

Pharmacogenomics is more inclusive; it refers not only to the effects of individual genes, but also to complex interaction between genes from every part of the genome affecting drug response.

Pharmacogenomics is an aid to diagnosis and prognosis. Routine diagnosis is not always straightforward. A patient does not always come with textbook type symptoms of the disease. In some cases, a single gene variation has been shown to be responsible for disease, and a Genetic test for this scan confirms the diagnosis as in cystic fibrosis and Huntington's disease. Sometimes more than one gene is involved, such as to Breast Cancer genes, Alzheimer's Disease genes, and susceptibility to Migraine genes. The most likely publicly visible contribution of Pharmacogenomics to improved health care would be delivery of a number of drugs coupled to diagnostic tests based on genetic markers for head and neck, pancreatic cancers, and solid tumors.

Pharmacogenomics classifies patients into responders and non-responders to particular therapeutic options. Breast cancers that over express a Protein for the herceptin genes are candidates for monoclonal antibody therapy. The cholesterol-lowering drug PRAVACHOL works according to the number of copies of the transfer protein gene. HIV Phenotyping is an important and practical adjunct to the treatment of AIDS.

Pharmacogenomics can save lives lost to adverse drug events, the 6th leading cause of death in the US. A blood test now enables physicians to tailor a certain drug dosage to their patient's genetic profiles. However, the cause and effect association remains unknown. Implementation of rapid automated DNA genotyping capabilities still, over time, provides individual genotypes of patients. Clinical data that is properly collected and managed identifies patient subpopulations at risk for adverse events, while allowing others to continue to receive the benefits of pharmaceutical therapy.

Pharmacogenomics and Gene Therapy

Mutation is a change of DNA sequence leading to aberrant or absent expression of the corresponding protein. It is the mutation, not the gene that causes predisposition to disorder/disease. Polymorphism is the quality of existing in several different forms. Sequencing of parts of the genome has demonstrated that some of these polymorphisms are in genes whose functions are important in responses of individual patient to therapy. The pathologist will need to profile common polymorphisms in patients who are beginning therapy for common diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, cancer and infections. The laboratory definition of the genotype/phenotype will determine the specific drug and doses suitable for him. This puts the pathologist in a more definitive position to determine appropriate therapy than traditional predictions of disease behavior based on morphology of lesions (microscopic patterns) or cultural characteristics of infectious organisms. The lab also monitors the success of gene therapy. After a gene is introduced, the tissue where the gene is inserted (i.e.: Transgenic Monkey or Mouse) must be active and should be monitored for normal expression of the introduced gene and normal structure and function of the gene product. The lab must also monitor the "integrating transfected genes" such that integration allows both normal gene expression and does not produce abnormal function or structure of the patient's other genes. In summary, molecular pathology is permeating and penetrating, as was immunopathology 20 years ago. "Immunopathology" an example of which is vaccine therapy is nothing new, a German/Austrian vaccine "UKRAIN" is supposed to destroy cancer cells through APOPTOSOS (programmed cell death) without attacking healthy cells. The US now has "GLEEVAC" with identical results. It also has been proven that in breast cancers there are genetically divergent CLONES that account for different microscopic components resulting in different responses to therapy.

Future Direction

As the human genome Project continues to uncover important disease genes (especially those for common disorders) at an ever increasing rate and technologies for high-speed DNA sequencing and multiplex mutation detection continued to improve, we can anticipate diagnostic molecular genetics assuming a far more dominant role in public health and preventive medicine. The advance of DNA "CHIPS" containing thousands of probes may someday allow extensive genotyping and lifetime disease prediction for thousands of disorders from a single drop of blood. Also, a poster on Human Genome Landmarks in the US Department of Energy, identifies a whole gamut of diseases/disorders with the corresponding position of the defective gene! Against these promising advances will have to be weighed ethical issues, especially in the field of gene therapy. Whatever the ultimate balance reached, there's no doubt that molecular genetics will be the driving force behind an ever greater proportion of evidence based medical practice in the 21st century and virtually every patient whether healthy or ill will feel the impact.

The impact of DNA storage on clinical practice
Evidence based medicine is the gold standard for the 21st century.

What do we do that contributes to the practice of this medicine? What specific examples and daily living indicate that storing DNA is a "Must"?

The event of 9/11 mainly profiling and identifying the deceased was laborious and expensive on federal funds despite which only approximately 2000 persons have been identified. One does not realize the importance of the death certificate without which burial cannot be accomplished until death occurs! Soldiers "missing in action" cannot be declared dead until their bodies are found and identified.

An article in USA Today concerned a "Mystery killer" that involved a young couple; studies failed to give a definitive answer despite autopsy and numerous laboratory tests. Since chances that the suspected disease that clinically presented to be contagious (plague) proved negative on repeated testing. Had DNA been stored, further testing may have led to the diagnosis and cause of death

A TV program about a Serial killer in Juarez Mexico led to more than 200 missing women and "no leads". Profiling and storing of DNA when these women were newborns would have helped identify the remains that took months to surface. The women after being raped were doused with gasoline and burned! The problem is ongoing.

Although Chandra Levy was missing for a year before the body was found, DNA is stable, and after profiling samples from her remains she can now be laid to rest. Since degraded DNA is difficult to purify, tests on her remains are ongoing to hopefully identify the killer. The FBI in USA Today declared, "there still are no clues to the killer". Samples are from her remains such as hair, teeth, bone; even old blood can still be stored and tested along with a Suspect's samples until results are conclusive.

A complex disease such as Parkinson's disease and the genes whose polymorphic forms can increase any person's risk but not necessarily cause it is the second most common in a Neuron-degenerative disorder. Parkinson's disease has neither a Polygenic (multiple genes) or multifactoral (genes and environment) cause. Over the past few years, debate has occurred between Parkinson's disease having a Genetic component or is just secondary to environmental influences. To evaluate the possible genetic component, open quote gene mapping" is the way to go. The availability of data from the Human Genome Project is opening new possibilities in studying common diseases such as Parkinson's disease. The multitude of molecular techniques and statistical tools applied to this data now allows us to potentially move medicine from a "reactive" discipline to one that can prevent disease. However, once found, how these "susceptibility genes" will be used in the future remains to be seen.

A newborn (the 3rd child) was diagnosed to have a "Rare protein allergy". Surgery was successful the baby is now seven years of age and healthy. Two other siblings are healthy. Storing this baby's DNA would have enabled testing of future siblings for mutations related to this rare congenital predisposition to allergies.

At three months of age a Baby presented with a Bleeding disorder; she was admitted, traded and died at the Children's Hospital in Cincinnati. The baby's profile showed a defective ADAMSTS 13 gene. The parents are being tested for this "mutation" and the baby's blood, buccal smears, and hairs are stored.

Will everyone be gene type early in life to prevent disease that they are at risk for? How will this affect employment/applications for competitive educational opportunities? Wolf farm code genetic genotyping be routine to determine patients with the risk for side effects or variability in efficacy? If the patient refuses typing will third-party payers is still pay for medications and/or treatment? Someday mandatory DNA storage and testing in life and death will enhance the quality of life and improve clinical outcomes because increasing knowledge of genetic variations sheds light on the role of genetic and environmental factors and disease susceptibility, aggression and therapeutic response.

Specialists can now screen eggs for the faulty gene that closes early onset Alzheimer's disease, enabling women who carry their rare disorder to avoid passing it on to their children.

FDA approved GLEEVEC has been very effective in chronic myelogenous leukemia and rare (stromal) stomach cancers; causes of relapse do so because they have developed mutations that alter GLEEVEC's target site in the leukemic cells, a Phenomenon well known to infectious disease clinicians. Just as microbes developing drug resistance mutations, so do cancer cells.

Summarizing the future of cancer treatment: in the past, pathologic diagnosis was based on histology. In the future it will be based on molecular profiling of tissue both that the genetic and proteinomic level. In the past, therapy was chosen by disease category. In the future, combination therapy will be aimed in tailored to individual patient profiles or classes of profiles. Select, monitor, and reevaluate.. that's hope for the future!

Scott Nizborski is the President and Owner of LabEx, Inc. LabEx is an authorized represetative for DNA Analysis providing DNA Profiling and Storage Services focused on the Funeral Pre-Need business.

By:Scott_Nizborski

Article Source: automated dna sequencing

dna results

dna results

DNA testing is a powerful tool and in some cases a very controversial tool, especially when immigration DNA testing is used for relatives from other countries to enter the US more easily and legally.

The tests have been used for thousands of US residents that want to sponsor a relative into the country but for one reason or another they do not possess a birth certificate or any other identification to prove they are related. This is where immigration DNA testing comes into play.

US government officials will recognize and accept DNA testing to allow the entry of these individuals. But here's where the problem comes in and even immigration lawyers are becoming very concerned. The problem is that government officials are requiring DNA testing more and more, even when the paperwork is all in place and there is no reason.

Immigration DNA testing has a few concerns. For starters it increases the cost a lot and it slows down the entire process. The second concern is the government itself and just how much they can be trusted. What exactly is happening with all these DNA results. Many believe this information is being turned over to agencies like Homeland Security where it is tracked in large databases.

There were just short of a million people who obtained permanent residency or a temporary visa last year as a result of being directly related to a US citizen.

Homeland Security officials claim that the DNA information is not retained but there is some evidence that this isn't true. There are only a couple of labs in the country that are authorized to do immigration DNA testing so although potential immigrants may request DNA testing from another type of lab such as the AABB it will not be recognized by the government.

Immigration lawyers believe it is these two labs in Washington that are actually driving the increase in the requests for DNA testing. After all for a private lab what a great source of revenue.

The concerns began to arise as more and more immigration requests that have all the necessary paperwork and relatives in the US are still being requested to submit immigration DNA testing that is done through one of the two accepted Washington labs. This is occurring after the first step of the visa application has been approved and may lawyers are wondering just why.

Immigration DNA testing is no different than any other type of DNA testing. The process used to identify the relationship would be consistent with that which is used when paternity tests are run. A swab on the inside of the cheek in the mouth, or a blood sample - either will work.

But for the immigration department to recognize it the results must be determine at one of the two labs previously mentioned. For further details on their procedure be sure to contact US immigration.

So although immigration DNA testing can be a positive tool it can also be a tool that's abused way too often.

About The Author

By:Morten Hansen

Article Source: dna results

dna molecule

dna molecule

The double helix, which we today associate with the DNA molecule, is a very antique phallic symbol, best recognized in the form of the winged double-helical wand or caduceus, otherwise referred to as the "rod of Hermes." The Caduceus had its origin in the double phallic symbol of Paleolithic antiquity, in association with the office of the Shaman, who, in the traditions of the Fertility Cult, was the boy-consort of the Earth-Mother, inferior to her in status in matriarchal Paleolithic societies. Thus, we find the phallic rod, in historic times, intimately associated with Hermes, the "messenger," in his role as "psychopompos" that is, "guide of souls."

The diverse associations of the shaman, in traditional culture, testify to the broad aspects of the office of the shaman in traditional societies. Besides his function as link between the physical and spiritual realms, he was a native doctor, diviner and general miracle practitioner. The folktales of traditional cultures reveal the cross-cultural awareness of the often significant infusion of quackery and legerdemain trickery into shamanic practice.

In Paleolithic Mediterranean societies, however, the evidence of cave mural art is that the earliest association of the office of the shaman had been with regard to the problem of animal fertility magic; a fact which should be expected given that prehistoric human societies were mostly hunting and gathering cultures. The double phallic symbol was, therefore, a representation of the potency of the spiritualized masculine principle in nature with respect primarily to creative-generative functions: the creative-generative function of cosmic divine prinicple, as it affects animal life, being the issue of primary interest to the animal fertility cult.

Closely associated with the double-helical wand of Hermes is the so-called rod of Asclepius, a shamanic deity of medicine and healing. The use of this symbol by Moses in the wilderness testifies to its antiquity. In contrast to the double-helical rod of Hermes, the Asklepian, as it is also called, consists of a single serpent-helix. Serpents are phallic symbols of divine spirit potency in traditional lore; thus, both the Asklepian and the Hermes rod have the same primary symbolic significance.

The association of wizards and witches with magical staffs or "magic wands" recalls the tradition of the magical creative potency of the helical shamanic staff of office. The English word "wand," in reference to the magical phallic staff of the sorcerer, is derived from a philological root indicating "winding," "wavy," "undulating," or "supple," in reference, of course, to the helix of the Asklepian, and the caduceus. Such English words as "wind," "wend," "wander," and "wonder," are derived from the root of the word "wand."

The coincidence of an antique phallic symbol of God's creative potency with the structure of Deoxy-Ribonucleic acid (DNA) is a remarkable one indeed. It is almost as if God as nature's artificer appended his signature to his biological systems creations as an artist might his painting or sculpture!

By:John Thomas Didymus

Article Source: dna molecule

dna laboratory

dna laboratory

It is better to be safe than sorry. This is what every DNA patron must remember since DNA results are life changing. DNA is considered to be conclusive all the time so there is almost no questions posted after the results are out. Due to this make or break scene, prospective clients must make sure that they are putting their lives at reliable hands. Anyone can claim accurate, convenient and fast results, but not all can really deliver clean and real results. As such, before choosing the most reputable DNA testing lab, one must look into the credentials and accreditations, which speak for the credibility of the company.

The first step is to look for accreditation by the American Association of Blood Banks. This body has already been setting the bar of excellence in parentage testing for over 20 years. Those affiliated with AABB have valid, scientific and safe operations. The review and inspection done by the AABB are intensive so no substandard DNA testing lab can get pass through AABB. Local Health Departments must also approve the operation of the DNA testing center. These bodies ensure the interests and welfare of their people so they are known to conduct rigorous inspections on all laboratories with DNA service. Another accrediting body is the College of American Pathologists. They are recognized worldwide in fostering excellence in the field of pathology and laboratory medicine. As such, they will never risk their name for some petty testing center. The Forensic Quality Services International is another organization that checks for ISO compliance. There may still be other bodies that ensure high quality performance in DNA testing. Usually, accredited laboratories take pride in these credits so they post the seals and logos of the mentioned bodies. When checking the internet, the companies will surely mention these credentials, which say that they are cut above the rest.

Giving into sweet talks and flashy claims of DNA testing lab can be risky and too dangerous. DNA results put a grave responsibility to the perfect match so extra caution must be taken to ensure that justice is given to whom it is due.

By:Lindsey Jenkins

dna analysis

dna analysis

DNA testing has become practically indispensable in any criminal investigation, in order to obtain the absolute proof regarding the identity of the criminal. DNA testing is the best identification tool, and has helped convict or exonerate countless people accused of a crime, can establish paternity with almost 100% accuracy, or identify accident victims who could not be identified by any other means.

Each person has a unique DNA, determined by a small fraction spread throughout the total genome. Unless you have an identical twin, no one else has the same sequence of bases in all of the sections of DNA.

DNA testing is based particularly on these unique sequences, analyzing these specific sections called markers. DNA samples can be taken from cells found in body fluids, skin, hair follicles or the inside of the cheek. After isolating the DNA from the cells, millions of copies are made using an enzyme that speeds DNA reproduction. Then, other reactions break apart the DNA molecules at specific locations in order to isolate particular markers. These markers are ultimately compared to the unknown sample. The more markers identified, the more chances that the match between two samples is accurate. DNA analysts look at a number of different markers to create a "DNA fingerprint".

All methods of collecting DNA samples, be it blood, cheek swab, skin, is equally accurate, because all cells contain the same DNA. So contrary to popular belief, a blood sample is no more accurate than a cheek swab, for example. However, when hair samples are used, the hair must be pulled, not cut, because hair is not made of living cells. If it 's pulled it carries with it some cells from the living follicle.

It is impossible to absolutely identify a person as the source of a DNA sample without looking at the whole of that person 's DNA. With identical twins, it 's never possible, but with many markers the chances for an accurate identification are favorable. Typically, the comparison is made using between 2 and 13 markers. With 13 or close, it 's extremely unlikely that an incorrect identification will occur, however it is not absolutely impossible.

Still, if an absolute match is hardly possible, a mismatch is very easy to identify through DNA analysis. For example, in a criminal investigation a suspect can be easily eliminated as the source of a sample based on the absence of a single marker. All DNA from a particular person must match from one end of each molecule to the other.

DNA testing has consisted a huge breakthrough, and is a strong pillar in any criminal investigation. DNA analysis has even been used to reopen old cases that were considered solved, because DNA samples remain useful for a very long time. The results are far more accurate and reliable than any other form of identification, and numerous people have been cleared for crimes they did not commit based on DNA analysis.

Alexandra is the editor of this article, but she also started a new project about burglar alarm monitoring. This is a website which provides resources about wireless burglar alarms.

By:Alexandra Cazacu

Article Source: dna analysis