วันจันทร์ที่ 18 ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2553

Micro current stimulation could be a successful treatment of macular degeneration Be

Micro Current Stimulation (MCS) therapy

Micro Current Stimulation (MCS) therapy is perhaps the most promising treatment currently being investigated for dry age-related macular degeneration. This is a non-surgical procedure, which is the promotion of nerve fibers in the macula and a current very low with a device approved by the FDA on battery power. The current is supplied deposited with different electrical frequencies through electrodes on the closed eyelids. Treatmentdoes not cause discomfort or pain and is twice a day. While a very effective form of treatment is the MCS therapy is no cure for macular degeneration and must continue for the life of the patient. Overall, no side effects or adverse reactions associated with this process were observed. Micro current technology stimulation to the point where people learn their own micro-electrical stimulation therapy can be considered a residential unit progressed. In many cases, a patientMCS undergoing treatment will experience an improvement in vision in four days. For people with a severe form of the disease, it may take several months.

Human cells are no different than batteries. They sometimes have lower energy can be saved or to maintain power. The micro-current therapy offers the charm of the cells 'energy' must be similar to charging a battery. Studies have also shown that the MCS therapy increases the flow of blood microcirculation,concentrations of ATP stimulated an increase in amino acids and concentrations of nutrients into cells.

Each body cell has an electrical charge. It is believed that part of what causes macular degeneration is a waste of energy source in the cell, or loss of electric charge. Just like a flashlight does not work without a charged battery to work, the photoreceptors of the retina can not function without a source of energy. MCS therapy is considered to increase energy sourcewithin the cell.

Macular Degeneration Foundation provides preliminary pre-clinical studies through pioneering ophthalmologists and researchers can view the electrical stimulation therapy, visual acuity, sharpness and color vision in 68 percent of patients improve with macular degeneration dry and 58 percent of respondents with the wet form. Reports from Russia indicate similar benefits.

A study conducted by Dr. J. Allen and Dr. Michael D. Leland under Nutritional published by MerrellIn addition, electrical stimulation and age-related macular degeneration showed that 60 percent of patients showed improvement in visual acuity after a combination therapy of micro-electrical stimulation and dietary supplements.

Drs Grace Halloran and August L. Reader studied with thirty people, in general, do not treat diagnosed eye diseases including macular degeneration, retinitis pigmentosa, CMV retinitis, and diabetic retinopathy. Patients were treated with aA combination of micro-electrical stimulation therapy and dietary supplements. Overall, significant increase in visual acuity of vision led to the majority and clearly establishes the safety of the combination of MCS therapy and dietary supplements.

Frequently Asked Questions about MCSTherapy ...

How does MCS (TM) Therapy?

In general, the electrical current gently wakes up the cells from sleep and stimulates the healing process. In short, cellssuch as batteries. When energy is low or runs out, the lights go out. MCS therapy changing the electrical charge of the cells in the eye to promote healing and regeneration.

The second way the therapy works, the ability of cells to increase to get rid of waste. A cell with "stuck" waste products is a dead cell and impair cellular communications in the region, where it is. The cells must take in nutrients and eliminate waste, as allother living beings. The energy provided by MCS therapy stimulates the cells of vital and less sluggish.

The third possibility MCS therapy works, is driven by an increase in blood flow in the area. By increasing blood flow in the range of cells and tissues are nourished, refreshed and increases the oxygen supply.

MCS therapy is safe?

No side effects or visible adverse effects associated with this treatment were. No increase in conversion to the wet form of AMD was foundthose who have been treated.

What is the treatment?

MCS therapy can be administered in a doctor's office or a treatment unit at home. Even if you start the treatment in a medical study, prolonged treatment with a treatment device at home is to keep to an improvement in vision and poor need to think of AMD.

After learning to self-administer treatment to treatment in the comfort of conduct at home with home treatment device. This iseasy to learn and use. After starting the treatments will continue with treatments twice a day. Each treatment lasts 6 to 12 minutes. Who has had the therapy, his vision to deteriorate.

How much can I expect an improvement in vision therapy MCS?

The results have been remarkable, with more than 68% of people with dry AMD treated show a statistically significant improvement in one or both eyes and 58% of people with wet AMD showsImprovement. 52% of patients experience an improvement of two or more lines with the standard Snellen chart visual acuity measured.

Why does my optometrist or ophthalmologist to know about MCS Therapy?

Most eye doctors in practice today have been told that she had macular degeneration, an incurable disease and that nothing can be done to restore a damaged retina to a healthy state. It 's also interesting to note that most doctors now in practice have beentrained to believe that food supplements are a waste of time and money. After 20 years they have finally admitted it was wrong on vitamins. Medicine as a profession is to change slowly or admit their mistakes.

Micro-electric stimulation therapy is currently used by most of the vitamins so doctors have been seen 20 years ago, is considered a therapy "unconventional". While small studies in the literature that the efficacy of MCS has been published,Although there have been major scientific studies have been published in traditional journals. These large-scale studies are what most doctors depend on to guide them in their recommendations to patients.

Several large-scale studies are underway or are being developed and should prove the efficacy of MCS for all. However, it takes 2 to 4 years and millions of dollars in research funds to complete their studies. Meanwhile, there areno reason that this option should be given to patients. The first reports were positive in 65 to 90 percent of patients treated, there are no side effects or contraindications, treatment is relatively inexpensive, and there is no alternative treatment. Why not a patient with an illness otherwise "incurable" try this option?

The scientific evidence for medical treatment for MCS ...

How does the MCS therapy?

MCS therapy works by increasingintracellular ATP (adenosine triphosphate) concentrations, enhancing protein synthesis and stimulation of the cells' ability to absorb nutrients (Ngok Cheng, MD). It is believed that through these mechanisms, MCS therapy improves RPE efficiency and, therefore, can be recovered and / or improve macular function.

ATP is synthesized in the mitochondrial respiration in a process known as the Krebs cycle, the sequence of reactions in the mitochondria that complete oxidation of glucose. KrollWarriors of the age-related changes in mitochondrial metabolism, which showed a decrease in synthase. Guerrieri has gone further to show functional and structural differences of mitochondrial F0F1 ATP synthase complex in aging rats. It is believed that many diseases of the retina, at least in part, to a decrease in mitochondrial function and the consequent decrease of intracellular ATP. This reduction in mitochondrial function resulting from damage caused by free radicals andmutation of mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA).

It 's interesting to note the genetic link between ATP and retinal disease. ATP synthase (ATPase) is an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP. A genetic defect in the ATPase 6 gene has now been raised in retinitis pigmentosa.

What is the difference between mortgage micro-currents, and other devices on the market?

Research by Cheng showed a very significant difference between the types of electrical installationsStimulators known as TENS devices and those classified as micro-current stimulators. Research has shown that the treatment was carried out with currents below 1000 micro-amps (less than 1 milli-amp) has a higher absorption of 75% to 400% of amino acids and an increase in intracellular ATP. In those treated with more than 1,000 micro-amps (more than 1 milli ampere), was in fact the amount of these substances, which are often less depressed compared with untreated controls. It 's very important to note,that TENS devices less expensive outside the safe and effective milliampere range and processed to levels much higher, some up to 80 mA. This is potentially dangerous and can lead to a reduction of intracellular ATP and the interruption of the Krebs cycle, with the reverse effect of MCS (TM) therapy. Micro current stimulator is 10 times the circuit of a standard therapeutic electrical stimulator and controlled treatment of the safe area to avoid milli amperes. Also, make sure that everyDevice, you can use is approved by the FDA. Many not on the market.

What is the legal status of MCS therapy with the FDA?

In the USA, governs the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the sale of medical devices (an example is the use of lasers for LASIK surgery is used). Before a medical device in the United States illegally, the person or company selling the device will need to obtain from the FDA for sale. To obtain approval, must submit evidence that the deviceis fairly safe and effective for any purpose, the "Note". Relieve the symptoms of chronic intractable pain and as adjunctive therapy in the treatment of postoperative wound pain problems: Micro current stimulators were cleared in order for the indication. Once the FDA has approved a medical device, a doctor may decide to use the device for other indications if the doctor considers it in the best interest of the patient. The use of a device approved forother than the FDA-approved indication is called "off-label use." MCS therapy is considered "off-label use."

Dr. Edward Paul - America's Eye Doctor - http://www.DrEdwardPaul.com

วันพฤหัสบดีที่ 14 ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2553

Breakthrough in longevity

Breakthrough: synthetic blood and longevity

On August 16, 2010 British "scientists have proved the principle that the lines of embryonic stem cells, red blood cells can be generated." Professor Marc Turner of the University of Edinburgh. is synthetic blood.

So What?

Curious in the development of their longevity, and that affects the rest of us. Each year in the UK are 2.5 million blood donations needed for blood transfusions and medicalProducts.

The lack of challenges blood every year in the United Kingdom and the United States. The cost of a pint of beer on average more than $ 500 if ultimately used by a patient. A reduction of up to 65% is possible with the synthetic blood. Wait, there's more.

Who Cares

synthetic blood is automatically free from infections, viruses, including mad cow disease. synthetic blood will not be rejected by the recipient. The final product is the blood of O-negative, the universal type in 99.9% of people without fear of transfusionRejection by the recipient organism.

Only 7% of the population of donors with O-negative. Now up to 100% O-Neg.

It has about seven years in the research stage. well-meaning people are already complaining that the scientists involved are baby killers. Red blood cells are created from spare IVF (in vitro fertilization). This is also provided for life.

In vitro fertilization, egg cells are fertilized by sperm outside the womb. In vitro is Latin for "glass", in tubes orPetri dishes.

E

The break consisted of 100 surplus embryos as stem cell lines. They were in red blood cells contain hemoglobin, the pigment that transports oxygen in the transformed cells.

Before you say, who cares? - The next step is the creation of synthetic (artificial), liver, eyes and heart cells. Imagine the end of heart disease, and the big C in your life? Now we have all the attention, right?

It takes up to five years before clinical trials in humans. Why so long?In the U.S., the Federal Drug Administration has extensive protocols of the first approval.

Perhaps C. Craig Venter (of human genome), would speed up. synthetic blood could end all vampire movies and TV shows?

Who is that Venter

Here we go again. On May 21, 2010 was created synthetic (artificial) life of C. Biologist Craig Venter and his team. Get this: the first living organism with a completely synthetic genome leads to artificial life was verified at the VenterInstitute.

Curious and pathologists working conditions to be aware of: the Venter Institute in Rockville, Maryland team created the first synthetic life form. So what? "The cell line is the standard computer, another genetic code." Daniel Gibson, author of the article in Science magazine.

What have they done? Create a genome of a bacterium from point # 1 and inserted into a cell. The Guardian (UK) said: "It 'opens the way for the designer who built bodies, rather than development." Thisare the same people who brought the world great "the first human genome sequencing."

Practical Use

It's called KGF-2, and hospitals, purchase commercial laboratories. What this does is to start healing the artificial human, rather than waiting for mother nature. Think for a second, when gene therapy to treat a company to introduce new, the next step is to turn off heart disease and cancer genes. Eh?

Quick Biography

Venter is a NobelAward. He is a pariah in the scientific community - it should be, he gathered up his chips. Why? He has drawn government scientists at universities and those trying to decipher the genetic code. Venter's team has years of faster, cheaper and a lot of millions of dollars.

No one (including scientists included) may be a competitor who works harder and better. Venter's team has dominated the Human Genome Project. In 2000 he mapped the human genome three years ahead of schedule.

In 2010, VenterOnce again, the scientists suggest the production of the first cell with a synthetic genome. Nobody bets Venter Institute does not produce further progress in the creation of synthetic life. What? He does not want its competitors alert. This makes it a poor competitor, but a world-class scientists.

So What

This technology will create better diagnostic tests and new tools to analyze the disease and the best form of treatment. Get this: Venter says the Institute's work isApplication in new vaccines, drugs and even the best water.

Endwords

Some scientists claim that Venter's work is dangerous for humanity. They fear the effect Frankenstein, because he played too loose with its synthetic life care program. They call it a level 3 laboratory containment and disposal of the yeast culture with greater care.

He responded with arrogance, we solved this problem five years, thank you very much.

My bet is on C-Craig Venter to the future success - after his Nobel.

วันอาทิตย์ที่ 10 ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2553

What do we learn from the bonobo monkeys

A study published in 2005 confirmed strong similarities between the genetic structure of human and bonobo apes. there are differences between the two species, but many purely statistical comparison shows a 98% similarity in DNA sequences.

Ongoing studies in the United States of America has shown the ability of bonobos to memorize the words and the use of primitive tools. Tests show that with constant training, these animals have language skills may be the sameone-year-old child of two humans.

Interesting as such research may be the question is if we learn something of bonobo apes. Bee enthusiasts have figured out how peaceful animals are pointed, but the facts contradict this conclusion: Bonobos are known for violent behavior on several occasions. Your company can not be shown to be free from aggression.

Those who promote vegetarianism among the people pointing the diet of the bonobo 'and the lack of scientific knowledge. Observationtheir natural habitat of these species do not eat only fruit, but also showed small animals like squirrels.

There are characteristics of Bonobo monkeys, we reflect the value of? People are infinitely more intelligent than monkeys, but we are absolutely happy? If our thoughts influence our primitive instincts, not this always happen to our advantage?

Naturalists are great efforts to save bonobos from extinction. At the turn of the 21st Century, onlya few thousand of these monkeys are still living in their natural habitat in Central Africa. Hunting by humans and deforestation, which reduces their place in the food, the most serious threats to their survival.

From what we know about the bonobo monkeys, captured four elements of our attention should be humble ability to provide resources for some traces of individuality, the tendency to avoid unnecessary costs and a limited capacity for self-protection measures taken. Consider these four ideasin detail.

[1] distribution of resources: the bonobo monkeys, like all animals, not to move at the same speed. What makes these monkeys is noteworthy that they are able, are standing on two legs over long distances on foot. Scientists estimate that about bonobo apes walk upright from ¼ time.

We do not know what he does sometimes go up and if not on all fours. The logical conclusion would be that to some extent, the bonobos are capable ofas their physical resources to match the situation.

Similarly, observers in Central Africa have stressed the bonobo monkeys divided into groups to find food more efficiently. The drive to optimize resource allocation, which is intensive in human beings, bonobos seems to be a property that we, together.

[2] model of individuality: the facial features of each Bonobo are very different, as is the case in humans. Each monkey is unique and can be distinguishedother members of the species. On the other hand, research suggests evidence of personality traits in monkeys in a complex human dimensions that could be compared.

The individuality of the bonobo is related to their family and in particular group. incestuous relationships are not held and denied intruders from other groups. For people, including our unique psychological aspects, beliefs and interests. In both cases, humans and monkeys, attemptsignoring the individual characteristics to produce stress.

[3] to avoid unnecessary costs: bonobos eat mostly plants and fruits in an environment where they live in Central Africa. Hunting, which requires much more effort in search of food plays a major role. If these monkeys go for small animals, they focus on the prey that can be easily caught and eaten quickly.

Bonobo monkey hunting, especially squirrels and small forest antelope. Prey is eaten immediately after capture. Theseviolent behavior is relatively unusual for these monkeys, as can easily be achieved by eating protein Haumana, a plant that grows in Central Africa.

When people save, the tendency to wasted effort seems to be tied to individual motivation. productivity gains in the long-term levels of demand for reflection, patience and personal commitment to contribute, not everyone is ready. However, the general tendency to avoid waste in all men.

[4], adopting theMeasures to further self-protection: the bonobo apes build nests in trees where they sleep on board at night. In their natural habitat in Central Africa, this measure proves to be highly effective protection against predators. Moreover, bonobos protect their territory against intrusion by other groups. These monkeys tend to be problems with the acquisition of steady habits, responding to consolidate the improvements.

experiments to teach in the U.S. indicates bonobo is designed to recognize wordstheir learning takes place in several stages. The signs to watch a series of sounds or of knowledge, the first group that the symbols can be taught more after it. People learn in a similar manner as foreign languages, although unpredictable at a faster rate.

Bonobo apes share the four characteristics listed above in humans, but their yield is lower in all sectors. Improvement of cognitive bonobo 'rather than in controlled experiments. Left to themselves, theseMonkeys show little ability to develop or acquire new skills.

What can we learn from bonobo apes is that their desire to benefit the environment with minimal effort seems to be innate. Bonobos are signs of individuality, try to avoid unnecessary work and are able, in a modest, self-protection measures.

How do people react to these problems monkeys in the search for solutions that provide acceptable levels of stability. The tendency to increase the efficiencyin bonobo only to the extent of their limited understanding. In men, with infinite possibilities for improvement, this trend is overwhelming.

วันพุธที่ 6 ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2553

The Da Vinci Code (DVD) Review

The Da Vinci Code is an international bestseller as a new phenomenon, but The Da Vinci Code is attached as a film by the end of the long forgotten. Directed by Ron Howard, the Hollywood veteran behind such memorable films as A Beautiful Mind and Cinderella Man, this adaptation of Dan Brown's religious thriller is 149 minutes monotonous and boring shows European spy thriller clichés. What Dan Brown's novels so popular is the narrative background on such issues asEncryption, secret societies, religious history and alternatives. But it is difficult to translate those ideas on the screen, and it is here that The Da Vinci Code fails as a commercial thriller.

The whole scene is composed of lectures on the history of Christianity and the life of Leonardo Da Vinci. Michael Crichton has a similar style of writing that focuses on science and modern technology, but his novels adapt better to the big screen. During the JurassicPark gave a brief hearing at the inner workings of DNA, then quickly rose to two hours of dinosaurs terrorizing people, The Da Vinci Code said, hypotheses, and conferences can only hang their audience. The ideas are interesting, but they do much better than a novel as a big-screen blockbuster. Less interesting is the conjecture that the film is nothing but a badly written 1970 spy thriller pharmacy ...

Tom Hanks plays the lead role of Robert Langdon,Harvard professor of religious symbology lecture in Paris. When Jacques Sauniere (Jean-Pierre Marielle), curator of the Louvre is found murdered and strangely positioned in his famous museum, first consult the local authorities Langdon for his expertise. But the professor, as the government learns from Sauniere's cryptographer granddaughter Sophie Neveu (Audrey Tautou), he and the prime suspect is the same thing. Create a diversion for the police discover a hidden track, the twoknown in history created by Sauniere in the moments before his death, proof that the man she could only get the treasure it more difficult - the Holy Grail. Working closely with Interpol to leave the heels, and the real murderess still at large, Langdon and Neveu is Grail historian Leigh Teabing (Ian McKellen) to teach them the history of the protectors of the Grail, the Priory of Scion, and endless references help to unravel the promise of a mystery to discover 2000 years ...

Despite 'Observations of the most critical is the performance of Tom Hanks' is not terrible. Although her character is sweet at best, was not much to work with them. Robert Langdon, the lack of development is due to the poorly written dialogue and bad choices in direction. Ron Howard tries to cover up a bit 'too much of the dialogue with the images, but the narrative history again with flashback sequences. Audrey Tautou delivers his lines well, but suffers the same constraints asOscar-winning screen partner. The only brilliant performance by Ian McKellen as the eccentric and fascinating experts provided Grail, Leigh Teabing. Some of his one-liner comic relief, but only by opening the gushing head wound, that this film is. At the end of The Da Vinci Code is a lesson on the distinction between two different media. DVDs have replaced all the books, or vice versa, for a reason. Sometimes it's best to read the book. In the case of "The DaVinci Code, which is one of those moments ...

วันเสาร์ที่ 2 ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2553

Criminal DNA

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid refers to the genetic material into human cells. Each person receives half the DNA from the biological mother and half from the biological father. With advances in technology, evidence of a key technology in forensic crime scene DNA to identify the biological tissue when the crimes are to find. A single hair root saliva, blood or semen can help to identify and capturedelinquents. Sweaty t-shirts, nail, urine, chewing gum, licked stamps and tissue can also check the websites. May suggest DNA may be used to make a portrait of DNA testing a. It is also useful in determining skin color and eye color. DNA fingerprinting, the genetic fingerprint is also called, is a very important tool for the identification of criminals.

Most of a person's DNA, the DNA of another gamePerson. This makes the process of differentiation between two people very difficult. Microsatellite is a particular type of DNA sequence, which simplifies the identification process. Microsatellites are small pieces of DNA that occur repeatedly in the DNA of a person. They tend to vary in a given area and the comparison helps to identify a person quite easily.

It 's almost impossible to remove all traces of a physical personPresence in a place of crime. A single cell is sufficient to identify the victims in situations where the body is completely destroyed. DNA fingerprinting is incorrect as a regular fingerprinting technique, but provides an indication to start a study.

In the post-conviction DNA testing cases, helps lawyers prove the innocence of a client. In cases where biological evidence was collected, but DNA testing was not performed earlier, it can be shown thatsubjected to DNA testing on the client to release. In cases where biological evidence was not collected or biological evidence was destroyed, confident on the basis of DNA testing, the Post is not possible.

วันอังคารที่ 28 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2553

Tool new gene could unlock the underlying causes of disease

Genetic researchers have substantial advances in understanding the evolutionary causes of common diseases and human history, a series of reports published in scientific journals after this week.

The most important of these results is the work of an international consortium of over 200 scientists from Canada, China, Japan, Nigeria, United Kingdom and the United States in the October 27 issue of the journal Nature.

The team examinedDNA samples from four different parts of the world and concluded that genetic variants located physically close to each other are inherited together in groups called haplotypes. The complete catalog of all of these blocks is known as the HapMap. "

"Building on the basis of a fixed sequence of the human genome, the HapMap is a powerful new tool for research into the causes of common diseases," said David Altshuler, MD, PhD, program director inMedical Genetics and the population of Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT.

"Such understanding is necessary for researchers to develop new approaches and urgent to understand the causes of common diseases is still volatile, such as diabetes, bipolar disorder, cancer and many others," he adds.

Altshuler and Peter Donnelly, PhD, University of Oxford in England, are the corresponding authors of the journal Nature.

Greatest information as efficiently

E 'has long been known that diseases in the family, perhaps with half of the inherited risk of common diseases caused by genetic differences of the parents said. Heredity also plays a role in different responses to a drug or an environmental factor game.

Since the causes of these common diseases and treatment responses largely unknown - and because knowing this information is necessary for the successful development of new approaches to prevention, Diagnosis and treatment - identifying the genetic contributors to human health is a fundamental goal of biomedicine.

A new genomics-based approach to human genetics was proposed nearly a decade populations cataloging human DNA sequence variations and full of common test them systematically for their association with disease in humans.

Although it is theoretically possible to collect all this information by> Sequencing the human genome, all this is neither technically nor economically feasible.

"The data from the HapMap project, scientists in an efficient way to particular DNA variants, most of the information in the largest offering, reduce costs and improve performance of genetic research to identify the source of disease," says Mark Daly, an associate member of the Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT. Daly led the Boston team's statistical and analytical work, and was a member of the writing group for the journal Nature.

Millions of SNPs a day

In addition, the HapMap project helped spur a remarkable progress in technology for testing genetic variations in DNA, which enables you to undertake extensive studies in large patient samples.

A single nucleotide polymorphism, or SNP (pronounced "snip") is a small genetic change or changes, DNA that can occur within a person> Sequence.

"When we started this work, a number of years, to determine the genotype of a SNP in a patient cost nearly a dollar, and we have hundreds of blogs a day," said Stacey Gabriel, director of the Broad Institute Genetic Analysis Platform, and an author of the journal Nature.

"Today the prices, in many cases at a fraction of a cent for each genotype were killed, and we can make millions a day," says Gabriel. "This is the difference between not able to do the study,and get done quickly and well. "

Days SNPs

The HapMap provides excellent power to capture most human variation and link or other symptoms of the disease, according to a paper published in the genetic correlation of the November issue of Nature.

Paul de Bakker, Roman Yalensky and his colleagues have shown that the determination, through the development and evaluation of methods of "tag SNPs" that capture the genetic variation to select in any environment with a minimal amount of work.

WithThese tags, scientists can compare the SNP patterns of people affected by a disease with unaffected far more efficiently than was previously possible.

"Compared to directly genotyping all common SNPs in the genome in all individuals of a study of disease, we selected tag SNPs based on HapMap can save genotyping observed by almost an order of magnitude, without realizing that a lot of power in a club real, "says De Bakker, post-doctoral fellow in Altshuler and DalyGroup at the Broad Institute.

The widely used tool for tag SNP selection was developed by de Bakker and colleagues.

Previous computer models to simple

Another important observation that the availability of HapMap data to computer models of human genetics that is too simplistic and can lead to erroneous conclusions about previous diseases the role of different genes or genetic loci.

Stephen Schaffner, Altshuler and colleagues at the BroadInstitute to describe the limitations of these models, first published in an article in the November issue of Genome Research. They also provide the scientific community with updated models that come close in reality the empirical data generated by the HapMap Consortium.

Better computer models can be useful tools for understanding the nature of human DNA variation, past changes in human population size and evolutionary selection, "saysSchaffner, a computational biologist in the wide range of medical genetics and population.

The candidate for natural selection

The public availability of genome-wide differences in the HapMap data also allows scientists to conduct systematic studies of potential sites on the genome of natural selection in humans and also for evaluating new application for selection.

Pardis Sabet, Eric Lander and colleagues at the Broad Institute, together withStephen O'Brien and colleagues at the National Cancer Institute used the HapMap data to a major case of natural selection, the study reported in association with HIV infection.

A genetic variation in a T cell receptor, called CCR5-? 32, which confers a strong resistance to HIV infection because of the complex and was placed on the bubonic plague, rose up against resistance, recently in the human population, do not issue reports in the November PLoS Biology.

"With the advantage of greaterGenotyping and empirical comparisons from the HapMap, we were able to demonstrate that the pattern of genetic variation seen at CCR5-? 32 does not stand out as exceptional relative to other loci on the genome and is consistent with neutral evolution, "said Sabet, a postdoctoral fellow at the Broad Institute.

"In fact, CCR5 is? 32 allele probably arose more than 5,000 years, not accepted over the past 1,000 years since it was previously," Sabet created.

In addition toso that the review of applications for the previous selection, the HapMap data give scientists a new way to identify new candidates for natural selection.

The objective

Successful completion of the HapMap has not only the completion of the human genome in 2001, but also in the massive effort to characterize its roots and catalog millions of SNPs across the genome.

Based on these initial data, the haplotype structure of the human personGenome was detected in 2001 and leads to the formation of the International HapMap Consortium. Finally, to determine the influence of natural selection in the human genome methods have been described in 2003.

Altshuler, Lander, Gabriel, Daly and many other Broad Institute has led or contributed significantly to these efforts, in addition to their role in the realization of the HapMap and demonstrations of its utility as described above.

InOctober 2002, the International HapMap Consortium set the ambitious goal to create the HapMap, within three years. The Nature paper marks the attainment of this goal with its detailed description of the Phase I HapMap, consisting of more than 1 million SNPs.

The consortium is also nearing completion of Phase II HapMap that will contain nearly three times more SNPs than the original version, allowing researchers to focus their gene searches even more precisely to specificRegions of the genome.

In line with the Broad Institute's commitment to building critical resources for the scientific community, HapMap data are freely available in several public databases, including HapMap Data Coordination Center (http://www.hapmap.org) NIH-funded National Center for Biotechnology Information dbSNP (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/SNP/index.html) and the JSNP database (http://snp.ims.u-tokyo.ac. jp) in Japan.

Copyright 2005 Daily News Central

วันศุกร์ที่ 24 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2553

barcode DNA in plants and its potential applications

Today, bar codes by Bernard Silver, a design student at Drexel Institute of Technology in Philadelphia, PA, and his friend Norman Woodland and Jordin Johanson in 1948 for universal use. They play a crucial role for the identification, monitoring, and relational data. They are particularly useful because scanning is relatively inexpensive, highly accurate and highly efficient to obtain and transmit information from bar codes and theirDatabase.

Barcode natural (a little short of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (the unique genetic code for all living organisms and some viruses), which is between 300-800 base pairs (bp) - adenine (A)-thymidine (T ) and cytosine (C), guanine (G)), which are represented by different colors) are available and are well established in the animal kingdom. With the sequencing of the cytochrome oxidase 1 (CO1) gene (inspired by the biologist Paul Hebert efforts in vainto determine the years 1970 2000 species of moths in Papua New Guinea (because of their taxonomic and morphological similarities), and his "withdrawal of water fleas" (of which there are only 200 species) and the subsequent 2003 paper in which he described "the variety life is hard as a burden" for biologists "and suggested that" all species on Earth ... a single DNA barcode is assigned, it would be easy to distinguish, "as written in the scanning of life (National Geographic, May 2010)), which in itselfmitochondrial DNA of every multicellular organism, scientists can easily determine phylogeny (identification) at the molecular level and stored in a database for easy retrieval. In PM Hollingsworth, DNA barcoding plants in biodiversity hot spots: progress and outstanding issues (inheritance, April 9, 2008), "barcode DNA is now routinely used for identification of the organism" in animals and has contributed to the discovery of new species. "

But Mark W. Chase,Nicolas Salamin, Mike Wilkinson, James M. Dunwell, Kesanakurthi Prasad Rao, Nadia Haidar, and Vincent Savolainen, terrestrial plants and DNA barcodes: short-and long-term goals (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 2005), this is not the first in crops with a maximum of recently, since their CO1 gene has the ability, genes serve as a bar code and it works for the variability in DNA barcoding "of the cause of" low "had a reputation for being difficult andThe lack of variation "plastid phylogenetic markers. This view prevailed until 2008, when a team led by Dr. Vincent Savolainen, Imperial College London's Department of Life Sciences and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew protein studied the functionality of megakaryocyte associated tyrosine kinase (matK) gene is located in the chloroplast trnK intron of genes found in the leaves of plants. Their research found that the matK gene (which contained "significant species-level geneticVariability and divergence of conservation of sites to accompany the development of PCR (polymerase chain reaction, a process that scientists, millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in approximately two hours to produce, bypassing the need for bacteria allows you to amplify DNA) primer widely used for taxonomic, [and] short length of sequence ... to facilitate the ... The DNA extraction and amplification), as reported by John W. Kress and David L. Erickson DNA barcodes: the genes, genomics and bioinformatics(PNAS. Vol 105, No. 8 February 26, 2008) and the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) (Gene Almanac. Dolan DNA Learning Center and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Inc., 2009) was able to distinguish between at least 90 years % all plants, including those that look identical to the human eye, known as cryptic species because of their identical appearance and genetic differences.

The matK gene has been found, however, ineffective in distinguishing between up to 10% of the plantSpecies from two main factors:

1. As a variation of "bursts of rapid speciation" was small, and
2. Based on an article by Anna-Marie Lever, the 'barcode' revealed in plants DNA (BBC News, 6 February 2008) when the plants were growing hybrids, whose genome has been re-by natural and artificial cross confuse [d] matK gene information "

While noting that the matK gene can serve as natural plant barcode has been done, it was his positioncomparable to that of animals - (mitochondria used as a "little bundles of energy in animal cells, whereas the chloroplasts are involved in photosynthesis in plants), the genes of the bar code on both sites of cellular energy outside the nucleus, as Anna-Marie Lever, showed the DNA 'barcode' are in plants, nuclear genes usually develop rapidly between [the bodies] of the same type of distinction. " However, in accordance with mitochronidrial genes in animals, genes of chloroplasts [in plants] for a furtherslower, so that [distinguishment between the same species, and] to occur fast enough for differences in the DNA code between species. "

The only exception among the plants and animals is the area of effectiveness for each gene barcode. The CO1 gene can be used effectively to determine and record phylogeny in almost 100% of the species, while types matK gene ineffective for 10% of the plant. The main reason for the range with 90%As for the matK gene animals as the natural result of crossing plants that are significantly more often. For this reason, the general information should be supplemented by other data gene matK. Although studies with trnH-psbA genes with characteristics similar to matK showed promise (in the sequencing of matK and trnH-psbA was used with plants of the nutmeg family (Myristicaceae), the actual extent of the law The identification has risen to around 95%), a panel of 52 eminent scientists Barcoding has decided to use ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (rbcL) gene (also chloroplasts is attached) science in a 2009 paper published in Proceedings of National Academy, as reported by Daniel Cressey, barcode DNA to the plant one step closer (Nature, July 27, 2009), to effectively integrate the barcode for the group of 10%.

While the discovery of phylogenetic utility of matK> Gene is relatively new, studies show the usefulness of phylogenetic gene rbcL date as far back as 1986, when Jane Aldrich, Barry Cherney, Ellis Merlin, and Jeff Palmer reported in Nucleic Acids Research, showed that the sequencing of genes of petunia rbcL and tobacco and alfalfa and peas are 97.3% and 94.1% genetically identical when comparing their bps.

Further studies, to name two, added a further demonstration of the phylogenetic utility of gene rbcL.A, sequences reported by Mitsuyasu Hasebe, Tomokyuki Omori, Miyuki Nakazawa, Toshio Sano, Masahiro Kato and Kunio Iwatsuki rbcL genes provide evidence leptosporangiate lineages of ferns (Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences, June 1994) used PCR-amplified fragments rbcL leptosporangiate in 58 species of ferns, the (reproduction produce vascular plants, the spores instead of flowers and seeds) for the class of Pteridophytes, arelongest history of all terrestrial vascular plants (hence the largest permanent loss of user data plylogentically) capture their evolutionary links. Other reports reported by Hiroaki Setoguchi, Takeshi Asakawa Osawa, Jean-Christophe Pintaudi, Jaffré Tanguy and Jean-Marie Veillon in phylogenetic within Araucariaceae on sequences of rbcL genes (American Journal of Botany, 1998) based on rbcL gene sequencing success to determine thepylogenetic relationship between 29 species of Araucariaceae (a sample of almost all existing species of ancient family of conifers, the maximum diversification of the Jurassic (about 199.6 ± 0.6 to 145.5 ± 4 million years (MA) and Cretaceous (c. 4 and reached 145.5 ± 65.5 ± 0.3 mA)).

Although the study shows that the gene has led to the discovery that the matK gene tree might be a bar code as a primary, Dr Savolainen team of eight potentialThe candidate genes and analyzed more than 1,600 DNA samples from the plant from the tropical forests of Costa Rica and the temperate region of the Kruger National Park, South Africa, two of the world's leading biodiversity hotspots obtained.

With the sequencing of the matK gene (for a different code for different plant species and an almost identical code to the plants of the same species) were able to distinguish between a thousand ways they Orchids - plants known for theirDifficulties because of their appearance almost identical differ, particularly when sterile. As a result, the plant identified by DNA "barcodes" (Medical News Today, February 6, 2008), "... what was regarded as a species of orchids [find] two different species living on different tracks of different [with]-shaped flowers adapted for different pollinating insects.

Scientific analysis, in which gene matK areas divided into five yearsstated that the area 3 (known as 3 ') region is the range most effective in phylogenetic information. When broken down further by 306 of the 140 bp 3 'region were phylogenetically informative.

Establishing the gene matK barcode function using the rbcL gene complements, marks an important breakthrough in plant research because it offers a wide range of applications, scientists and plant can be used by thisTaxonomy / taxonomy and the ability to bridge the gap, close to the time between plant and animal barcodes.

These potential applications include, but are not limited to:

1. Precise identification of plant species, particularly the cryptic species are difficult to distinguish, possibly leading to the discovery of new species. Currently, as Anna-Marie Lever, said DNA "barcode" has plants only "some experts [can] identify exactlythe composition of the hot spots of plant biodiversity. "
2. Precise identification of the botanical components in foods and medicines.
3. Detection of unwanted plant material in processed foods by inspectors from the health authorities.
4. Monitoring of plant species (eg immigration).
5. Finding endangered species for the conservation of habitat.
6. Detection of illegal transportation / trading of endangered species to protect them from potential harm.
7. The confirmation or identification of plants and insectsAssociations.
8. Facilitate expansion and botanical medical research.

But before this can be achieved, the following steps:

1. Creation of a genetic database in a handheld scanner, so that data can be uploaded to be available on the basis of a simple leaf / tissue sample. To improve the identification of species and accelerate the discovery of new species, has a huge database and are available online.
2. Establishment of aSearch method or algorithm for searching and access to DNA barcode information from a database online.
3. Define a set of standard reference samples of DNA using existing plant of the botanical gardens, herbaria, museums and other repositories of DNA content (bar codes only extractions bp matK and rbcL genes contains based). For example, the Consortium for the Barcode of Life Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History in Washington DCidentified more than two million of the estimated ten million species of plants, animals and fungi (many as yet unnamed) and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew now has more than 23,000 DNA samples of the plants. This is particularly important as cool collection efforts designed to preserve the DNA of each plant species, are not practical because it would require much time and effort.
4. collection efforts in accordance with international law (eg Convention on Biological Diversity) has madeprotect habitats and ensure the integrity of the sample. By W. John Kress and David L. Erickson DNA barcodes: the genes, genomics and bioinformatics, as the collection efforts are needed because current models are limited in quantity and may be composed of degraded DNA. Currently, the collection efforts are carried out in temperate (Iceland Plummer, MD and New York City, and others) and tropical (Forest Dynamics Plot, Panama, etc.) areas.

With a seal of approval by the UNdeclared 2010 the International Year of Biodiversity, "strong global effort to barcode 500,000 of 1.7 million named species of plants, animals and fungi targeted by 2015, which by international groups of researchers and groups / projects as pursued as the Consortium for the Barcode of Life, and soon, the International Barcode of Life (Ibol), a project that is scheduled to launch in July 2010. In addition, Paul Hebert, the biologist, the movement of the bar code and an inspiredIbol instrumental to the project, to scan Life (National Geographic, May 2010) said: "The approach is scalable to meet the world [so that by 2025 all] human species are frequent with barcode [were]."

In relation to plants, such as technology improves to use the matK gene rbcL genetic code and by creating a common database, the production of low-cost hand-held scanner suitable for analysis of leaf samples and matched tissue barcode DNAwith database information, the field of botanical research and phylogeny will benefit greatly especially for the identification and classification system will be available for more than a few experts. In addition, the identification and classification to be more precise than sole reliance on visual inspection of the morphology and physics (especially in terms of cryptic species) that, while endangered species can be easily traced and protect better, and peoplehave greater certainty about the food, the consumption of beverages and / or medicine it.

Other references:

José A. Jurado-Rivera, P. Vogler Alfried, Chris AM Reid, Eduard Petitpierre, and Jesús Gómez-Zurita. DNA barcoding insect host plants. The Royal Society. 17. October 2008.

Khidir W. Hilu and Liang Hongping. The matK gene: sequence variation and application for the classification of plants. American Journal of Botany 84 (6). 1997th

Steve Newmaster,Aron Fazekas, Royce Steeves and John Janovec. Army tests barcoding regions of South America, wild nutmeg trees. Botany 2008th

วันจันทร์ที่ 20 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2553

What is glutathione? Antioxidant, detoxify and boost the immune system

Glutathione is clearly seen as the most powerful antioxidants known to be the human body. And 'commonly known as the "Master Antioxidant" means. If our glutathione levels are inadequate, we are much more susceptible to pathogens, toxins, cellular damage caused carcinogenic (cancer agents), radiation, and virtually all other known risks.
So what is this fundamental substance called glutathione? We go to a bio-chemical science small talk here, but I'll keepas simple as possible, so try not to sleep please.
First, we must understand that amino acids are the building blocks for all living animals and plants. There are twenty amino acids that support all life on our planet.
Glutathione is a tripeptide (very small proteins), which is made of three specific amino acids: glycine, glutamic acid, cysteine and made the means of the utmost importance. Glutathione is the generic term for sulfhydryl glutathione (GSH to describe).
Gluathione isproduced by these three amino acids in the cell. Of these three cysteines is the most important because its availability is what determines how much glutathione is produced by the body. Unfortunately, a quality source of cysteine is not present in nature or is insufficient in many diets.
Indeed, one researcher has the idea that aging is intended in particular to a simple lack of a key amino acid - cysteine.
When the body is experiencing a shortage of cysteine, your cellscan not produce adequate levels of glutathione. This leads to a greater degree of cellular oxidation, a decrease in health, accelerated aging, the accumulation of toxins and less protection from disease.
However, if the levels are maintained or increased its wonderful glutathione metabolic functions as follows:
Enhanced Immune Response
Elimination of toxins and carcinogens
Antioxidant Cell Protection
Radiation protection
DNA synthesis and repair
Amino acid transport
Enzyme activation and regulation
Proteins, the synthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes
What does this mean?
Dr. Earl Mindell glutathione refers to as "Triple Threat Amino Acid." To put it simply leads Glutathione three important functions for the body:
Antioxidant:
Glutathione is clearly seen as the most powerful antioxidants known to be the human body. And 'commonly known as the "Master Antioxidant" means.
In fact, theEffectiveness of other known antioxidants like vitamin C, vitamin E, lipoic acid and selenium depends on the presence of glutathione. All these antioxidants work in synergy with glutathione in the center. Ultimately, it is glutathione which neutralizes free radicals and other antioxidants can to be recycled back to the battle.
Detox:
The enzyme system of glutathione helps many toxins from the body, including pollutants, heavyMetals such as mercury and lead, carcinogens, radiation damage and drug metabolites.
maximum concentration of glutathione in the liver, the organ of detoxification in the first place organs. Studies have shown that low concentrations of glutathione leads to poor liver function. If the liver suffers, the whole body suffers from a toxin burden.
Immune System Enhancer:
Glutathione plays a central role for the proper functioning of our immune cells, particularly in the production of white blood cellsCells. The immune system uses a variety of immune cells for defense against pathogens and other threats. The growth and activity of these cells depends on the availability of glutathione.
If your body has sufficient levels of glutathione, will prevent the disease better than if the levels are deficient.
Obviously Glutathione is perhaps the most important components of overall health undiscovered. If our glutathione levels are increased sufficiently, or, we are better able toPrevent illness, disease, and many of the degenerative processes of aging.
may obtain discovery of glutathione and the critical need for an adequate level of our whole life is one of the most important discoveries in the health sector are not.

วันเสาร์ที่ 18 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2553

DNA nucleic acids

DNA nucleic acids

 In essence, every cell molecules that store the structure of life are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is composed of four types of molecules known as nucleic acids or nucleotides. The four DNA nucleic acids are: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). These molecules in turn are divided into two families. Adenine (A) and guanine (G) as purine and cytosine (C) and thymine (T) as a pyrimidine, unknown. While the synthesis of DNA nucleotidesconverted into nucleic acids, so they can be combined to form DNA strands. The DNA strand leads the assembled structure of a double helix.

 The chemical structures of the four nucleotides are planar due to delocalized electrons in the 5:00 to 6:00 and membered rings, each with a thickness of 3.4 Angstrom. When the nucleotides of the double helix structure, AT and GC-shape are joined by a hydrogen bond, forming a base pair. The base pairs are then linked together with thesugar bonds to form the spiral. X-ray data shows that 10 base pairs per turn of helix.

 The helix model of DNA nucleic acids, explains the theory of genetic replication. James Watson, once described him as  " Pretty molecule, because the replication method is so evident in this structure. During replication, the breaking of hydrogen bonds between nucleotides and allow each individual strand of DNA serve as a replica of the other half for the model. The two identical copies of recent DNA nucleic acids are then distributed the new daughter cells. Like every replication cycle, half of that ancient DNA is obtained, DNA replication, is said to be semi-conservative.

rna synthesis

rna synthesis
 This procedure uses denatured RNase T1 to digest RNA. RNase T1 cleaves single-stranded RNA residues of guanosine 3  '. Partial digestion of 3  'or 5  like' RNA with this enzyme thus produces a scale of residue G.

 The 1X rna synthesis Buffer used in the procedure containing 7 M urea denaturing contribute to RNA secondary structure. To perform the procedure diluted the RNA ends at least five times in buffer sequencing. The sample is denatured at 50 ° C, RNA and heatedthen incubated with RNase T1 at room temperature.

rna synthesis 
In the process, two different concentrations of RNase T1 can be used. Tube # 1 contains RNase and represents a negative control. Non-Bands in length in the tube are fission products within the RNA sample. These bands will also be present in samples of nuclease treatment, should be ignored in its analysis. T1 Tubes # 2 and # 3 with two different concentrations of RNase. Normally, at least one of the reactionscreate a ladder with digestion by each of the guanosines in the rna synthesis . Further enzyme dilution may be necessary to achieve the optimum scale digestion.

วันพฤหัสบดีที่ 16 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2553

B12 and 5 hours of energy drinks

We live in a hectic, hurry world. This means they often eat in a hurry and quantities and types that lead to high energy peaks and valleys of energy then. There are many products on the market, try to provide a solution to this problem. 5 hours energy drink is definitely one, and use vitamin B12 in an interesting way to do this.
It 'Monday morning. Time to work. I take pop out of bed, shower and pile-drive a bowl of oatmeal while sucking after coffee. Reachwork and then coffee. It's a mad house in the morning, but I can and a salad for lunch. With 2ish, I could go home. I suffer from a large deficit in energy and want to be not much done. It 's time for more than a caffeine or time to watch the clock until it's time to head home.
Millions of people follow a specific timetable, every working day. Dealing with the loss of energy in mid-afternoon is something that everyone struggles. As we all know, 5 hours Energy Drinksought to provide a solution. Most people think it is pure caffeine. Well, it is to some extent. And 'the equivalent of about caffeine in a cup of coffee in the beverage industry. The other ingredients are what interest me.
The additional energy includes a whopping 500 mcg Vitamin B12. This is a bit 'more than 8,000 times the recommended daily amount. And 'this dangerous? Not really. B12 is not stored in the liver and body fat, so do not be a problem. Indeed, it appears thatbeen suspected of long-term assets has resulted in the food industry and health markets. What is it? The B-12 shot!
Millions of people regularly receive B12 shots. Yes, injections. Why? B12 is an important building block for vitamin and maintenance of your body. Preserves red blood cells in good conditions, making fatty acids, lipids, DNA synthesis and energy production. A deficiency of this vitamin in the body can cause fatigue, poor memory and depression. Therefore, it is often called"Vitamin happy."
Most people View 5 energy drinks such as caffeine now runs only. There is something, but it's pretty clear the company is also trying to take advantage of a lot of vitamins B12 and others in the mix.

วันอาทิตย์ที่ 12 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2553

Select an online dating service

It seems that people are increasingly all over the world the benefits of the technology available to them today and romance on the Internet. Many couples meet on a daily basis and some of them are building relations of life. But the choice of an online dating service can not be as easy as it seems there are so many of them compete with others on the market today.
Many singles dating sites pay to enlist asState and use their services, but there are also many services that are available for free. Before moving on to some, is a good idea, some of them pay a visit to a little 'research on what they have to offer and how much work will cost.
It 's a good idea to see what the site offers features and categories available. We must see if the photos will be viewed by members of the general public and the amount of personal information is requested, anddisplayed. If you respect your privacy, you should look for a page showing only a profile, search for colleagues.
The specific information that calls for a dating site can help you decide if this is the type of service to you. Some people want so much to reveal about themselves before meeting someone. Some sites have a topic for people who share the same interests unique to offer. For example, there are services that these people seek justiceextramarital affairs and one that appeals to women in prison, the search for love, once they are released.
Usually it is a site suitable for everyone out there, such as services to provide serious daters, as well as casual daters. It's usually a good idea to decide what kind of relationship you are after, if you look at search dating sites. This is, in general, you can restrict the number of practice.
Some sites are more than other scientific and also tryPeople adapt technology DNA sequencing, genetic features, based on specific. Other sites offer personality tests to find out what people might be compatible. Some services also provide a partner or meet do not pay for membership.
One of the most important things is to look for a site, the number of members that belong to them. Date of finding someone will be rather difficult if it is a few hundred peopleWebsite. The area in which they live is also an important factor. Most people would like to also meet people from their region.
When a selection of the many dating sites you might want to choose one that offers a free trial version. This lets you use your site and become familiar with its services and features. Unfortunately, some of the best places in the world are often drawing some questionable characters not their fault. Use your common sense and make it easy to use online dating servicesMake sure to take proper measures to ensure your safety.

วันพุธที่ 8 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2553

DNA molecules

We know that all organisms produce offspring of their own kind, be it an animal, such as single-celled amoebae, or multicellular animals like a horse. Amoeba Amoeba a daughter and a horse produces a horse for children. All this is possible only because a very special molecule called DNA molecules, or deoxyribonucleic acid, such as. DNA contains the genetic material that makes it so unique in every individual and the material transferred from parents to children, the.DNA molecules is a particular organelles of the cell, the cell nucleus called in. Since the cell size is very small, and every body has many molecules of DNA, DNA-DNA Will Have That by the densely packed in the nucleus and this form is known as a chromosome. DNA, he passes the time in the cell in the form of chromosomes. During cell division, DNA unfolds the way it can be copied and transferred to daughter cells. DNA leads, instructions for protein synthesis, so that other biological processes regulated normally as possible. The DNA in the nucleus, DNA is known as nuclear DNA and the complete set of nuclear genome is called. In addition to resources in the cell nucleus, DNA in cellular organelles called mitochondria of those cells that power homes. During sexual reproduction offspring inherit half of the nuclear> DNA from the father and half from the mother, but fertilization mitochondrial DNA is inherited from the mother for not fully bear the mitochondria of sperm.
The DNA molecule was first observed Miescher in late 1800 by a German biochemist Frederic. But nearly a century has passed since the DNA molecule and scientists could unravel the mystery. The mystery of the DNA was dissolved in 1953 the eminent Works of James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin. The use of X-ray diffraction technique, scientists have found the double helix structure of DNA that encodes genetic information, the land of every organism to live the present.
The chemical components of DNA are called nucleotides, for example. Nucleotides consist of three components: a phosphate group, a sugar and one of four types of nitrogen bases. For a complete thread> DNA nucleotides are linked sugar in the form of chains with alternating arrangement of phosphate groups. The four types of nucleotide bases adenine, the DNA is formed (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). The arrangement of these nitrogen bases within a DNA molecule is very specific. This can always adenine with thymine, cytosine pair on one side of DNA helix-helix and can pair with guanine on one side of DNA. This specificProvision of base pairs in a DNA strand is usually followed by a molecule called Chargaff rule that DNA plays an important role in the replication des
The process of DNA replication proceeds according to the breaking of chemical bonds between the two poly-nucleotide chains by an enzyme. The DNA breaks halfway between the base pairs. This new work is now separated strands as templates from which new DNA strandsreached. Within the nucleus many more nucleotides are present. The basics first link with the existing basis, corresponding to the model only in accordance with the rule of Chargaff. If base pairing is the phosphate groups and the sugar nucleotide is added to form other clusters. This procedure is repeated with the presentation of both strands of DNA. The whole process is repeated thousands of times in the form of two DNA molecules, which are precisely Repetitions of the original DNA molecule, and all this happens during mitosis, so that daughter cells receive the exact DNA of a similar character. If an error occurs during the process of mutation of DNA replication occurs. The mutation causes a gain deletion or addition of base pairs and proteins also deserted by false pairs of amino acids.
One of the most important functions of DNA, protein synthesis. The process of protein> Summary is completed in two phases. The first step is the transcription and translation is the second phase. In transcription, the cell uses information from a gene for a protein to form. Both DNA and RNA molecules are similar in structure, except that the RNA-DNA is shorter than the ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose and bears the DNA into RNA also differs from DNA in a bank instead of uracil of thymine. During transcription,the type of RNA, the RNA or messenger RNA is produced, because it will be created gene messengers "send" when information from DNA to a protein-ribosome can then know that RNA polymerase recognizes and attaches to a nucleotide DNA chain at the beginning of the gene, at a place called the organizers. The positions of RNA polymerase promoter on the DNA strand to the right and takes it in the right direction. How RNA polymerase moves, create a new chainextra nucleotides. The RNA polymerase continues until you reach a stop sign at the end of the gene. The RNA polymerase then detaches from the DNA and RNA chain is released, making mRNA.
If the mRNA sends information from DNA to ribosomes and amino acids is converted into the language. Amino acids are formed when a protein is created. Transfers information from DNA to mRNA to the ribosomes in the language of nucleotides.The ribosomes lying in a place certain elements of mRNA, Which can start codon consists of three nucleotide bases indicates that it is ready, a message is read, is produced. Amino acids form proteins that are after the transfer RNA or tRNA, and ribosomes are attached. The moves tRNA for amino acids along the mRNA, so that the message can feed on the ribosome. We all amino acids are linked together to form a protein chain. Every body useProcess of proteins.
It may be life to the conclusion that DNA is a very essential part of an organization.